Table Of ContentERGONOMIC
DATA FOR
EQUIPMENT DESIGN
NATO CONFERENCE SERIES
I Ecology
II Systems Science
III Human Factors
IV Marine Sciences
V Air-Sea Interactions
VI Materials Science
III HUMAN FACTORS
Recent volumes ,n this series
Volume 15 Human Detection and Diagnosis of System Failures
Edited by Jens Rasmussen and William B. Rouse
Volume 16 Anthropometry and Biomechanics: Theory and Application
Edited by Ronald Easterby, K. H. E. Kroemer, and Don B. Chaffin
Volume 17 Manned Systems Design: Methods, Equipment, and Applications
Edited by J. Moraal and K.-F. Kraiss
Volume 18 Women and the World of Work
Edited by Anne Hoiberg
Volume 19 Behavioral Treatment of Disease
Edited by Richard S. Surwit, Redford B. Williams, Jr.,
Andrew Steptoe, and Robert Biersner
Volume 20 Tutorials on Motion Perception
Edited by Alexander H. Wertheim, Willem AWagenaar,
and Herschel W. Leibowitz
Volume 21 Human Assessment and Cultural Factors
Edited by S. H. Irvine and John W. Berry
Volume 22 The Acquisition of Symbolic Skills
Edited by Don Rogers and John A. Sloboda
Volume 23 Role Transitions: Explorations and Explanations
Edited by Vernon L. Allen and Evert van de Vliert
Volume 24 Aging and Technological Advances
Edited by Pauline K. Robinson, Judy Livingston, and James E. Birren
Volume 25 Ergonomic Data for Equipment Design
Edited by Heinz Schmidtke
ERGONOMIC
DATA FOR
EQUIPMENT DESIGN
Edited by
Heinz Schmidtke
Institute of Ergonomics
Technical University of Munich
Munich, Federal Republic of Germany
Published in cooperation with NATO Scientific Affain Division
PLENUM PRESS· NEW YORK AND LONDON
Ubrary 01 Congress Cataloging in Publication Data
Main entry under title:
Ergonomic data for equipment design.
(NATO conference series. III, Human factors: v. 25)
"Proceedings 01 8 NATO ARion ergonomic data for equipment design, held MarCh
22-26,1962, in Munich, Federal Republic 01 Germany"-T.p. versp.
Bibliography: p.
Includes indexes.
1. Human engineering-Congresses. 2. MSrl-ITI8chine systems-Congresses. 3.
Engineering design-Congresses. I. Schmidtll:e, Heir"lZ. N. Series.
TA166.E695 1965 620.6'2 84-22894
ISBN 978-1-4684-4906-8 ISBN 978-1-4684-4904-4 (eBook)
DOl 10.10071978-1-4684-4904-4
Proceedings 01 a NATO ARion Ergonomic Data for EQUipment Design,
held March 22-26, 1982, in Munich, Federal Republic 01 Germany
© 1964 Plenum Press, New YOf1(
A DivisiOn 01 Plenum Publishing Corporation
233 Spring Street, New YOf1(, N.Y. 10013
AI rights reserved
No part of this book may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted
in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical. photocopying, microfilming.
recording, or otherwise, without written permiSsion from the Publisher
PREFACE
For many years ergonomists and human engineering specialists
have made significant contributions to the solution of problems
faced in the area of human labour and to the introduction of their
research results and field experience into the process of equipment
design. However, the rapid increase in complexity of equipment in
use as well as in development demonstrates the necessity of broaden
ing the point of view continuously. The workshop held in Munich
from March 22nd to March 26th, 1982, was an excellent opportunity
for the participants to discuss their respective interests and
their interpretation of needs for future research.
The workshop was sponsored by the Human Factors Special
Programme Panel of the Scientific Affairs Division of NATO. This
sponsorship, together with the helpful assistance rendered by
Drs. Bayraktar, Kroemer, and Sanders, is gratefully acknowledged.
This volume contains the papers presented during the workshop.
All these papers are directly related to the general aim: the ex
change of experience collected in the field of ergonomic data for
equipment design on the one hand and the definition of unexplored
areas on the other. It is hoped that this presentation will help
to define future research methods in the area of ergonomic data
and set into motion fruitful discussions on the validity of the
data in use today.
No meeting of this nature could be organized without the help
of many people. In particular I would like to thank the members of
the Institute or Ergonomics of the Technical University Munich and
Dr. Robert Andrews of Plenum Publishing Company, London, for
agreeing to publish the proceedings of the workshop.
Heinz Schmidtke
v
CONTENTS
Ergonomics and Equipment Design 1
H. Schmidtke
System Ergonomics as a Basic Approach to
Man-Machine Systems Design 15
B. DOring
Task Analysis in System Ergonomics 31
H. Bubb
Generation of Ergonomic Data and Their
Application to Equipment Design 57
R. Bernotat
Some Limitations to Ergonomic Design 77
J. Moraal
Anthropometric Reference Systems 93
H. W. Jiirgens
Engineering Anthropometry 101
K.H.E. Kroemer
Basic Data for the Design of Consoles 115
H. -P. Riihmann
Ergonomic Data for Console Design 145
W.H. Cushman
Ergonomic Data for the Design of Body
Support . • • . • • • • • . 159
H. Schmidtke
The Design and Location of Controls: A Brief Review
and an Introduction to New Problems 179
W.W. Wierwille
vii
viii CONTENTS
The Hand-Machine Interface 195
C. G. Drury
Ergonomic Database for Visual Displays and VDUs • • . • • 219
H.L. Snyder
Ergonomics of Software for Visual Communication • • • • • 235
A. van Meeteren
Towards an Ergonomic Design of Software Tools • . . • • . 257
w. Dzida
Munich Theses of Ergonomics 275
K.H.E. Kroemer
Name Index 277
Subject Index 281
ERGONOMICS AND EQUIPMENT DESIGN
Heinz Schmidtke
Institut fur Ergonomie
Technische Universitat MUnchen, MUnchen/FRG
As far as is known, the term "Ergonomics" was for the first
time applied by the Polish scientist W. Jastrzebowski dur,ing 1857.
Although ergonomics may thus be regarded as a relatively new scient
ific discipline, it has undergone an astonishing development over
the past few decades. A rapid rise in the standard of education,
which in turn increased the general level of expectation of the
population in industrialized countries, gave rise to a growing real
ization for the need to introduce more humane working conditions.
The words: "Humane working conditions" are used here in the sense
of excluding psychophysical over-extension, on the one hand, and,
on the other hand, as a preventitive against the misuse of human
labour as a "uni-purpose machine".
Efforts to ease over-extension in the sense of excluding the
external health - hazardous influences on work may be achieved by
means of varied precautions. The introduction of an eight-hour shift
after the First World War whereby working hours were reduced, was
one of the first precautions to be effectively applied. A develop
ment running parallel to the shortening of working hours was the
rapid proce~s of mechanization, resulting in the substitution of
human power by the machine. It nevertheless resulted in the mechan
ization of production, so that continuous assembly line production,
as distinguished from the intense division of labour, gradually do
minated over the hitherto applied method of single-part production.
A consequence of division of labour is however, that an exclusive
physical demand on a person may lead to a progressive meaningless
ness of his occupation. It was especially a growing meaninglessness,
in the sense of a dimunition of the job content in question to a few
hand movements, which led to dissatisfaction in recent times amongst
employees and to a restructuring of human labour in a number of
coun trie s •
2 H. SCHMIDTKE
"Overload by means of underload" in assembly line work however
merely constitutes the one side of the coin. The reverse side re
flects progressive mechanization and automatization, which took place
escpecially since the great advancement of microelectronics in the
fields of production and management which, in turn, led to the use
of new production processes operated automatically~ the people, so
to speak, as monitors of a higher order, merely fulfilling a con
trolling function. This form of emptiness of work often goes hand
in hand with interpersonal isolation at the place of work. Less and
less people working in exceedingly larger working areas, produce
more and more end-products. The psychological strain factor, result
ing from isolation, leads, similarly to physical strain limited only
to a few muscles, to increasing dissatisfaction amongst people with
their work.
In the production- and administration processes, mechanization
and automatization have lightened human labour on a broader basis.
Rationalization measures frequently result in an increase in the
pressure of performance. Time pressure and new equipment and ma
chines, being frequently complicated to understand and to operate,
lead to psychological stress. In addition to these already-mentioned
adverse circumstances looms a fear amongst many people of loosing
their jobs as a result of rapidly encroaching technology.
Where is the place for ergonomics in this scenario? May ergo
nomics rightly be defined as a science of human occupation within
fixed, cultural, social and physical surroundings? Is it in a po
sition to - or should it be its task to make work more bearable?
An occupation may be regarded as bearable if it does not, also not
on a long-term basis, result in an impairment or danger to health,
regardless whether such impairment is of a rhysical or psychologic
al nature. For the prevention of an impairment to health it is im
portant that the authorities, responsible for defining the required
standards of achievement, have sufficient information on the limits
of continuous performance at their disposal. Practical marginal
standards of bearableness have evolved in the science of ergonomics
for the area of physical stress suffered as a result of muscular
exertion and environmental influences (e.g. climate, noise, vibra
tion etc.). The aforesaid standards have found successsful appli
cation in practise as well as recognition in various countries by
means of legislation, regulations and agreements entered into bet
ween employer- and employee organizations. No similar standards of
bearableness have to date evolved in the joint area of informatory
or psycho-mental stress. There remains, as before, a wide scope
for future research -in this field.
In addition to its contribution towards solving the degree of
bearableness of work, it is the task of ergonomics to define such
parameters, through scientifically substantiated research, influenc
ing the acceptability of work by groups as well as individuals.
ERGONOMICS AND EQUIPMENT DESIGN 3
Injury-free work should not necessarily be regarded as being reason
able.
From the exclusion of pathological operational sequences in no
way follows that certain work is acceptable to employee groups or
that it is regarded by individuals as being beneficial to the de
velopment of their personality. The muted dissatisfaction of many
people over their working conditions present an indication of our
lack of knowledge, even at this present age, on the type of factors
determining reasonableness and satisfaction. A field of exploration
is opened to sociological-orientated ergonomists, the importance of
which can only grow.
Whilst primarily ergonomists with broad experience in physiology
and occupational health are called for in order to determine degrees
of bearableness and whilst ergonomists with a social-scientific
background are normally involved in determining reasonableness and
individual satisfaction, engineering-orientated ergonomists are
burdened with a task of combining various sciences. Working places,
production factors and machines, the physical working environment
and the organization of labour are thus designed and organized by
engineers. As a rule, the design criteria taken into account include
economy in the sense of cost effectiveness, and degree of system
effectiveness, safety in production and operation and adaptability
to varied production aims. These design criteria, which are undoubt
edly of importance, do however not always coincide with the op
portunities and needs of those using the working places and machines.
user~optimization and degree of system effectiveness do however not
necessarily have to stand in exclusion of each other. The effective
ness of a man-machine-system does not only result from the re
alized technical standard of the machine. The extent to which the
realized or realizable technical standard integrates in the psycho
physical constellation of the subsystem man, is equally decisive.
The most important task of a hardware-orientated ergonomy re
volves around the integration of data on human beings into the
equipment design process. It is in this sense that ergonomics pro
vide a service function for the design engineer. It cannot reason
ably be expected from a designer to have mastered wide areas of the
available research and information on the combined field of human
istics. The fulfillment of service functions does however not always
present an easy task to the ergonomist as new questions or problem
areas may arise during the development of new technical systems
for the treatment of which exist as yet no special data. A trans
fer of findings from system A to system B, which was constructed
either by means of differing technology or in a different environ
ment, is however only possible if it takes place under certain re
strictions. This may be elucidated by means of the following ex
ample: The cooperation between engineers and ergonomists may have
led to the development of a driver's seat of a motor vehicle with
