Table Of ContentEnvironmental Xenobiotics
Environmental Xenobiotics
Edited by
Mervyn Richardson
BASIC, Rickmansworth, Hertfordshire, UK
UK Taylor & Francis Ltd, 1 Gunpowder Square, London EC4A 3DE
USA Taylor & Francis Inc., 1900 Forest Road, Suite 101, Bristol, PA 19007
This edition published in the Taylor & Francis e-Library, 2005.
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British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library.
ISBN 0-203-48292-1 Master e-book ISBN
ISBN 0-203-79116-9 (Adobe eReader Format)
ISBN 0-7484-0399-X (cased)
Library of Congress Cataloguing in Publication Data are available
Front cover photograph shows the endogenous substrate, progesterone, docked into
the putative active site of CYP17A1 showing that amino acid residues (coloured by
type) can orientate the substrate (coloured by atom type) for oxygenation. (Courtesy
of David Lewis, Cytochromes P450, Taylor & Francis, 1996.)
Cover design by Hybert Design & Type, Waltham St Lawrence, Berks
Contents
Preface x viii
Mervyn Richardson
List of contributors xx
Abbreviations and acronyms x xiii
Acknowledgements x xx
Definitions xx x ii
SECTION 1 PROLOG 1
Chapter 1 Prolog 2
Mervyn Richardson
1.1 Introduction 2
1.2 Chemical analysis 2
1.3 Training 3
1.4 Mal-use of chemicals 4
1.4.1 Pesticides 4
1.4.2 Colorants 4
1.4.3 Surfactants 4
1.4.4 Solvents 5
1.4.5 Pharmaceutical and veterinary chemicals 5
1.5 A way forward 5
1.6 References 6
SECTION 2 INTRODUCTORY CHAPTERS 8
Chapter 2 Factors Altering the Severity of Adverse Effects Induced in Animals and People by 9
Environmental Xenobiotics
Barbara W.Kemppainen and Jayant Vodela
2.1 Introduction 9
v
2.1.1 Risk assessment 9
2.1.2 Chemical mixtures 10
2.2 Definitions of interactions 10
2.3 Mechanistic basis for interactions 11
2.3.1 Toxicokinetics 11
2.3.2 Toxicodynamics 12
2.4 Effects of exposure scenario 13
2.4.1 Route 13
2.4.2 Duration and level of exposure 14
2.5 Conclusions 15
2.6 Acknowledgements 15
2.7 References 15
Chapter 3 Xenobiotic Mechanisms of Pesticides and Fertilizers in Soil—A Review 17
György Füleky and Zsuzsa Pásztor
3.1 Introduction 17
3.2 Fate of pesticides in soil 17
3.3 Biochemical pathways for pesticide degradation 19
3.3.1 Effects of soil microbiological activity on pesticides and vice-versa 21
3.3.2 Effects of soil enzymatic activity on pesticides and vice-versa 24
3.4 Effects of pesticides on non-target soil organisms and soil biological processes 27
3.5 Fertilizers and heavy metals 30
3.5.1 Effects of fertilizers on soil microbial populations and enzymatic activity 30
3.5.2 Heavy metal phytotoxicity 32
3.5.3 Heavy metal stress on soil organisms 32
3.6 Conclusions 35
3.7 References 35
Chapter 4 Environmental Xenobiotics: Pesticides 39
Mervyn Richardson
4.1 Introduction 39
4.2 Regulations in the use of pesticides 40
4.2.1 An example of a licensing registration 41
vi
4.2.2 The position in United Kingdom 42
4.2.3 The position in Europe 42
4.3 Xenobiotic transformation 43
4.3.1 Carbamates 43
4.3.2 Organophosphate pesticides 43
4.3.3 Organochlorine pesticides 43
4.3.4 Paraquat and diquat 44
4.3.5 Dithiocarbamates 44
4.3.6 Synthetic pyrethroids 44
4.3.7 Other aspects 45
4.4 What is not known about pesticide residues 45
4.4.1 Danes ban selected pesticides as research links cancer clusters to agrochemicals 45
4.4.2 More from Denmark 46
4.5 What is required to be known 46
4.6 Pesticides residues in food…. Is There a real problem? 46
4.6.1 What industry does 47
4.6.2 What governments and the international agencies do 48
4.7 Monitoring programs 56
4.7.1 Multiresidue methods 56
4.7.2 Single residue methods 57
4.7.3 Additional work on analytical methods is needed 57
4.8 Mode of action: herbicides 58
4.9 Advantages and disadvantages in natural xenobiotic pesticides 58
4.10 Conclusions 59
4.11 References 62
Chapter 5 Xenobiotics in the Third World Agricultural Environment 64
Umar Khan Baloch and Muhammed Haseeb
5.1 Introduction 64
5.2 Xenobiotics in abiotic agroenvironment 66
5.2.1 Pesticides 66
vii
5.2.2 Fertilizers 68
5.3 Xenobiotics in biotic agroenvironment 68
5.3.1 Pesticides 68
5.3.2 Fertilizers 71
5.3.3 Others 72
5.4 Toxicology of major xenobiotics 73
5.4.1 Pesticides 73
5.4.2 Fertilizers 77
5.5 Agroxenobiotics and regulation 78
5.6 Alternatives to agrochemicals 79
5.7 Conclusions 80
5.8 References 81
Chapter 6 Environmental Transformation in Bioenergy Production Using Anaerobic Digestion 83
Hussein I.Abdel-Shafy
6.1 Introduction 83
6.2 Benefits of biogas 83
6.3 Principles of anaerobic bioconversion 84
6.4 Sources of waste materials for bioconversion 86
6.4.1 Manure 88
6.4.2 Agricultural crops 88
6.4.3 Forests 89
6.4.4 Urban wastes 90
6.4.5 Agricultural wastes 90
6.4.6 Industrial wastes 91
6.5 Anaerobic digestion 92
6.5.1 Process description 92
6.5.2 Technology 93
6.6 Environmental factors affecting anaerobic operation 95
6.6.1 Composition of raw sludge 95
6.6.2 Heavy metals 96
6.6.3 Ammonia 96
viii
6.6.4 Sulfate 97
6.6.5 Nitrates 97
6.6.6 Temperature 97
6.6.7 Hydrogen in concentrates (pH) 97
6.6.8 Inorganic salts 98
6.7 Safety and utilization of biogas 99
6.8 Costs of bioenergy 1 01
6.8.1 Capital cost-sensitive technologies 1 01
6.9 Conclusions 1 02
6.10 Acknowledgements 1 03
6.11 References 1 03
SECTION 3 BIOMONITORING 1 05
Chapter 7 Integrative Approach to Aquatic Environment Biomonitoring 1 06
Sashwati Roy, Pirjo Lindström-Seppä and Osmo Hänninen
7.1 Introduction 1 06
7.2 Transport, bioavailability and uptake 1 06
7.3 Biochemical and molecular markers in biomonitoring 1 07
7.3.1 Biotransformation system 1 08
7.3.2 Antioxidant defense systems 1 12
7.3.3 DNA adducts 1 13
7.3.4 Stress problems 1 13
7.3.5 Hemoxygenase 1 14
7.3.6 Micronuclei test 1 14
7.4 Criteria for selection of biomarkers of environmental pollution 1 14
7.4.1 Sensitivity 1 15
7.4.2 General and specific responses 1 15
7.4.3 Practical consideration 1 15
7.4.4 Inherent variability 1 15
7.4.5 Applicability and validation in fields 1 15
7.4.6 Relevance of biochemical response at higher levels 1 15
ix
7.5 Integrative approach in monitoring 1 16
7.6 References 1 16
Chapter 8 Cytochrome P-450 in Pollution Monitoring. Use of Cytochrome P-450 1A (CYP1A) 1 22
as a Biomarker of Organic Pollution in Aquatic and other Organisms
David R.Livingstone
8.1 Introduction 1 22
8.2 General features and use of biomarkers 1 23
8.3 Induction of cytochrome P-450 1A (CYP1A) in animals as a specific biomarker of 1 23
organic pollution
8.3.1 Basic characteristics of the CYPIA enzyme system 1 23
8.3.2 Induction of hepatic CYP1A in fish and other vertebrates as a biomarker for organic 1 24
pollution
8.3.3 Existence and biomarker potential of a CYP1A-like enzyme in marine invertebrates 1 27
8.4 CYP1A-Catalyzed metabolisms and links with higher order deleterious effects 1 30
8.5 Concluding remarks 1 30
8.6 Acknowledgements 1 31
8.7 References 1 31
Chapter 9 Immunoassays for Rapid, Inexpensive Monitoring of Agricultural Chemicals 1 36
Philippe Ross, Geoffrey Scott, Michael Fulton and Erich D.Stozier
9.1 Introduction 1 36
9.2 Enzyme linked immunosorbent assays (ELISAs) 1 37
9.3 Case studies 1 39
9.3.1 Assessment of fish kills from agricultural pesticide runoff 1 39
9.3.2 Unusual mortality in marine mammals and other protected species 1 41
9.3.3 Monitoring of non-point source pesticide runoff 1 46
9.4 Potential applications; limitations 1 49
9.5 References 1 50
Chapter 10 The Role of Algae in Ecotoxicological Tests 1 52
Bożena Sosak-żwiderska and Danuta Tyrawska
10.1 Introduction 1 52
10.2 Test algae 1 52
10.2.1 Selenastrum capricornutum, Anabaena flos-aquae and Microcystis aeruginosa 1 53
