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C M Y CM MY CY CMY K
ENVIRONMENTAL CHEMISTRY AND TOXICOLOGY Yu
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Tsunoda
Third Edition
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ENVIRONMENTAL TOXICOLOGY Tsunoda
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Biological and Health Effects of Pollutants
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Human survival depends on the availability of clean air, water, and food and on the
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welfare of plants and animals. However, anthropogenic and naturally occurring
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chemicals can cause adverse effects on living organisms and ecological processes.
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Environmental Toxicology: Biological and Health Effects of Pollutants, Third
Edition presents fundamental information on the effects of environmental toxicants N
on living systems. It focuses on the chemical and biological characteristics of major M
pollutants found in the air, water, and soil and relates them to the health and well
being of humans, animals, and plants. E
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Surveying the environmental and health changes that have occurred in recent decades, T
the book discusses the sources, metabolism, and damage process of toxicants, and A
the environmental, biological, and nutritional factors that may influence toxicity. It
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looks at natural defense systems, including the mechanisms for detoxification on a
cellular level. The text examines the major toxicants—EPA criteria air pollutants, T
environmental fluoride, volatile organic compounds, environmental metals and O
metalloids involved in soil and water pollution, and pesticides—and addresses their
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relationship with endocrine disruption and environmental cancer. This comprehensive
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approach offers insight into the interaction of various chemical agents with DNA. The
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book also introduces the process of ecological risk assessment.
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Fully revised and expanded, the third edition of this popular book includes new and L
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updated material as well as a new chapter on occupational toxicology. Based on
research from more than 35 years of teaching environmental toxicology and related G
courses, this textbook is a useful resource for students, professionals, and researchers
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interested in the effects of pollutants on living systems.
Third
Edition
K11871
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Composite
Third Edition
ENVIRONMENTAL
TOXICOLOGY
Biological and Health Effects
of Pollutants
Third Edition
ENVIRONMENTAL
TOXICOLOGY
Biological and Health Effects
of Pollutants
Ming-Ho Yu
Humio Tsunoda
Masashi Tsunoda
Boca Raton London New York
CRC Press is an imprint of the
Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business
CRC Press
Taylor & Francis Group
6000 Broken Sound Parkway NW, Suite 300
Boca Raton, FL 33487-2742
© 2011 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
CRC Press is an imprint of Taylor & Francis Group, an Informa business
No claim to original U.S. Government works
Version Date: 20110617
International Standard Book Number-13: 978-1-4398-4039-9 (eBook - PDF)
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Contents
Preface to the Third Edition ..................................................................................xvii
Acknowledgments ...................................................................................................xix
About the Authors ...................................................................................................xxi
Chapter 1 Introduction ..........................................................................................1
1.1 Study of Environmental Toxicology ..........................................1
1.2 Importance of Environmental Toxicology as an Area
of Science ..................................................................................1
1.3 Introduction to This Book .........................................................1
Chapter 2 Environmental Changes and Health .....................................................7
2.1 Our Changing Environment ......................................................7
2.1.1 Introduction ..................................................................7
2.1.2 World Population ..........................................................7
2.1.3 Global Climate Changes: Global Warming .................8
2.1.3.1 Impact on Plants .........................................10
2.1.3.2 Impact on Birds and Animals .....................10
2.1.3.3 Impact on Tropical Species.........................12
2.1.3.4 Impact on Freshwater Fish ..........................12
2.1.4 Impact on Marine Oxygen .........................................12
2.1.5 Rising Acidity of Seawater .........................................13
2.1.6 Rise in Diseases .........................................................15
2.2 Air Pollution ............................................................................15
2.2.1 Introduction ................................................................15
2.2.2 Air Pollution and Developing Economies ..................16
2.3 Indoor Air Pollution ................................................................19
2.4 Water Pollution ........................................................................19
2.5 Soil Pollution ...........................................................................23
2.6 The Changing Diseases ...........................................................24
2.6.1 Cancer ........................................................................24
2.6.2 Birth Defects and Child Mortality .............................30
2.6.3 Reproductive Damages ...............................................30
2.6.4 Respiratory Diseases ..................................................31
2.6.5 Endocrine Disruption .................................................33
2.6.6 Diseases Induced by Metals .......................................33
2.6.7 Foodborne Illnesses ...................................................34
Review Questions ...............................................................................35
References ..........................................................................................36
v
vi Contents
Chapter 3 Occurrence of Toxicants.....................................................................39
3.1 Introduction .............................................................................39
3.2 Visible Smoke or Smog ...........................................................39
3.3 Offensive Odors .......................................................................40
3.4 Agricultural Damage ...............................................................40
3.5 Intoxication of Animals ...........................................................41
3.6 Injuries to Humans ..................................................................41
3.7 Chronic and Acute Effects ......................................................42
3.7.1 Chronic Effects...........................................................43
3.7.2 Acute Effects ..............................................................43
3.7.2.1 Donora, Pennsylvania, United
States, 1948 .................................................44
3.7.2.2 Poza Rica, Mexico, 1950 ............................44
3.7.2.3 London, England, 1952 ...............................44
3.7.2.4 New York, United States, 1953 ...................45
3.7.2.5 Los Angeles, California, United
States, 1954 .................................................45
3.7.2.6 New Orleans, Louisiana, United
States, 1955 .................................................45
3.7.2.7 Worldwide Episode, 1962 ...........................45
3.7.2.8 Tokyo, Japan, 1970......................................45
3.7.2.9 Bhopal, India, 1984 .....................................45
3.7.2.10 Chernobyl, Soviet Union, 1986 ...................46
3.7.2.11 Gas Leak on the Platform in the North
Sea, 1988 .....................................................47
3.7.2.12 Oil Spill in Alaska’s Prince William
Sound, 1989 ................................................47
3.7.2.13 Coal Mine Explosion in Western
Virginia, United States, 2010 ......................48
3.7.1.14 Gulf of Mexico Oil Spill, United
States, 2010 .................................................48
3.7.2.15 Raspadskaya Coal Mine Explosion in
Russia, 2010 ................................................49
3.7.2.16 Gas Explosion and Chemical Leak in
Nanjing, China, 2010 ..................................49
3.7.2.17 Toxic-Sludge Spill in Hungary, 2010 ..........49
3.7.2.18 Gas Explosion in Henan, China, 2010 ........50
3.7.2.19 Fukushima Nuclear Power Plant,
Japan, 2011 ..................................................50
References ..........................................................................................52
Chapter 4 Toxic Action of Pollutants ..................................................................53
4.1 Introduction .............................................................................53
4.2 Effects on Plants ......................................................................53
4.2.1 Source of Pollutants ...................................................53
Contents vii
4.2.2 Uptake of Pollutants ...................................................53
4.2.3 Transport of Toxicant .................................................55
4.2.4 Plant Injury .................................................................55
4.3 Mammalian Organisms ...........................................................56
4.3.1 Exposure .....................................................................56
4.3.2 Uptake ........................................................................57
4.3.3 Transport ....................................................................58
4.3.4 Storage ........................................................................58
4.3.5 Metabolism .................................................................59
4.3.6 Excretion ....................................................................59
4.4 Mechanism of Toxic Action ....................................................59
4.4.1 Disruption or Destruction of Cellular Structure ........60
4.4.2 Direct Chemical Combination with a
Cell Constituent ..........................................................60
4.4.3 Effect on Enzymes .....................................................61
4.4.3.1 Enzyme Inhibition by Inactivation
of Cofactor ..................................................62
4.4.3.2 Enzyme Inhibition by Competition
with the Cofactor ........................................62
4.4.3.3 Enzyme Inhibition by Binding to the
Active Site ...................................................63
4.4.3.4 Inhibition of Enzyme Activity by
Toxic Metabolite .........................................64
4.4.4 Secondary Action as a Result of the Presence of
a Pollutant ...................................................................64
4.4.4.1 Allergic Response to Pollen ........................65
4.4.4.2 Carbon Tetrachloride ..................................65
4.4.4.3 Chelation .....................................................65
4.4.4.4 Metal Shift ..................................................66
4.4.5 Free-Radical-Mediated Reactions ..............................66
4.4.6 Endocrine Disruption .................................................68
Review Questions ...............................................................................69
References ..........................................................................................70
Chapter 5 Factors Affecting Xenobiotic Action .................................................73
5.1 Introduction .............................................................................73
5.2 Physiological Properties ..........................................................73
5.3 Dose or Concentration .............................................................73
5.4 Duration and Mode of Exposure .............................................74
5.5 Environmental Factors ............................................................75
5.5.1 Temperature ................................................................75
5.5.2 pH ...............................................................................76
5.5.3 Humidity ....................................................................76
5.6 Interaction ................................................................................76
5.6.1 Additive, Synergism, and Potentiation Effects ...........76
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5.6.2 Antagonism ................................................................77
5.7 Biological Factors ....................................................................78
5.7.1 Plants ..........................................................................78
5.7.2 Animals and Humans .................................................78
5.7.2.1 Genetic Factors ...........................................78
5.7.2.2 Developmental Factors ...............................79
5.7.2.3 Diseases ......................................................79
5.7.2.4 Behavioral Factors ......................................79
5.7.2.5 Gender.........................................................80
5.8 Nutritional Factors ...................................................................80
5.8.1 Introduction ................................................................80
5.8.2 Fasting and Starvation ................................................80
5.8.3 Proteins .......................................................................81
5.8.4 Carbohydrates.............................................................81
5.8.5 Lipids ..........................................................................83
5.8.6 Vitamin A ...................................................................84
5.8.7 Vitamin D ...................................................................84
5.8.8 Vitamin E (α-Tocopherol) ..........................................85
5.8.9 Vitamin C ...................................................................86
5.8.10 Minerals .....................................................................88
Review Questions ...............................................................................89
References ..........................................................................................90
Chapter 6 Biotransformation: Metabolism of Xenobiotics .................................93
6.1 Introduction .............................................................................93
6.2 Types of Biotransformation .....................................................93
6.3 Mechanism of Biotransformation ............................................94
6.4 Characteristics of Biotransformation ......................................94
6.5 Consequence of Biotransformation .........................................97
6.5.1 Biotransformation of Endogenous Substances ...........97
6.5.2 Activation of Xenobiotics ...........................................98
6.6 Factors Affecting Biotransformation .....................................100
6.7 Characteristics of the Cytochrome P450s .............................101
6.7.1 Induction ...................................................................102
6.7.2 Genetic Polymorphisms ...........................................103
Review Questions .............................................................................103
References ........................................................................................104
Chapter 7 Responses to Environmental Toxicants ............................................105
7.1 Introduction ...........................................................................105
7.2 Responses of Plants ...............................................................105
7.3 Responses of Humans and Animals ......................................106
7.3.1 The Respiratory Tract...............................................106
7.3.1.1 Nasopharynx .............................................106
