Environmental physics : sustainable energy and climate change

474 Pages·2011·19.91 MB·English

by  Egbert Boeker

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Environmental Physics

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Environmental Physics
Sustainable Energy and Climate Change
Third Edition
EGBERT BOEKER and RIENK VAN GRONDELLE
VU University Amsterdam

A John Wiley & Sons, Ltd., Publication
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Thiseditionfirstpublished2011
©2011JohnWiley&Sons,Ltd
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LibraryofCongressCataloging-in-PublicationData
Boeker,Egbert.
Environmentalphysics:sustainableenergyandclimatechange/Egbert
BoekerandRienkvanGrondelle.–3rded.
p.cm.
Includesbibliographicalreferencesandindex.
ISBN978-0-470-66675-3(cloth)–ISBN978-0-470-66676-0(pbk.)
1.Environmentalsciences. 2.Physics. 3.Atmosphericphysics. I.Grondelle,Rienkvan. II.Title.

GE105.B642011
628–dc22 2011011525
AcataloguerecordforthisbookisavailablefromtheBritishLibrary.
PrintISBN:Cloth978-0-470-66675-3,Paper978-0-470-66676-0
ePDFISBN:978-1-119-97418-5
oBookISBN:978-1-119-97417-8
ePubISBN:978-1-119-97519-9
MobiISBN:978-1-119-97520-5
Setin10/12ptTimesbyAptaraInc.,NewDelhi,India.
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Contents
Preface xiii
Acknowledgements xv
1 Introduction 1
1.1 ASustainableEnergySupply 1
1.2 TheGreenhouseEffectandClimateChange 3
1.3 LightAbsorptioninNatureasaSourceofEnergy 4
1.4 TheContributionofScience:Understanding,Modelling
andMonitoring 5
Exercises 6
References 6
2 LightandMatter 7
2.1 TheSolarSpectrum 7
2.1.1 RadiationfromaBlackBody 7
2.1.2 EmissionSpectrumoftheSun 9
2.2 InteractionofLightwithMatter 12
2.2.1 ElectricDipoleMomentsofTransitions 12
2.2.2 EinsteinCoefficients 14
2.2.3 AbsorptionofaBeamofLight:Lambert-Beer’sLaw 16
2.3 UltravioletLightandBiomolecules 19
2.3.1 SpectroscopyofBiomolecules 20
2.3.2 DamagetoLifefromSolarUV 21
2.3.3 TheOzoneFilterasProtection 22
Exercises 28
References 28
3 ClimateandClim ateChange 31
3.1 TheVerticalStructureoftheAtmosphere 32
3.2 TheRadiationBalanceandtheGreenhouseEffect 36
3.2.1 SimpleChangesintheRadiationBalance 39
3.2.2 RadiationTransfer 41
3.2.3 ASimpleAnalyticalModel 44
3.2.4 RadiativeForcingandGlobalWarming 45
3.2.5 TheGreenhouseGases 48
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vi Contents
3.3 DynamicsintheClimateSystem 51
3.3.1 HorizontalMotionofAir 53
3.3.2 VerticalMotionofOceanWaters 58
3.3.3 HorizontalMotionofOceanWaters 59
3.4 NaturalClimateVariability 59
3.5 ModellingHuman-InducedClimateChange 62
3.5.1 TheCarbonCycle 63
3.5.2 StructureofClimateModelling 66
3.5.3 ModellingtheAtmosphere 67
3.5.4 AHierarchyofModels 70
3.6 AnalysesofIPCC,theIntergovernmentalPanel
onClimateChange 70
3.7 ForecastsofClimateChange 70
Exercises 74
References 76
4 HeatEngines 77
4.1 HeatTransferandStorage 78
4.1.1 Conduction 79
4.1.2 Convection 82
4.1.3 Radiation 82
4.1.4 PhaseChange 83
4.1.5 TheSolarCollector 84
4.1.6 TheHeatDiffusionEquation 87
4.1.7 HeatStorage 90
4.2 PrinciplesofThermodynamics 91
4.2.1 FirstandSecondLaws 91
4.2.2 HeatandWork;CarnotEfficiency 95
4.2.3 Efficiencyofa‘Real’HeatEngine 97
4.2.4 SecondLawEfficiency 98
4.2.5 LossofExergyinCombustion 101
4.3 IdealizedCycles 103
4.3.1 CarnotCycle 103
4.3.2 StirlingEngine 104
4.3.3 SteamEngine 105
4.3.4 InternalCombustion 107
4.3.5 Refrigeration 110
4.4 Electric ityasEnergyCarrier 113
4.4.1 VaryingGridLoad 114
4.4.2 Co-GenerationofHeatandElectricity 115
4.4.3 StorageofElectricEnergy 117
4.4.4 TransmissionofElectricPower 123
4.5 PollutionfromHeatEngines 125
4.5.1 NitrogenOxidesNO 125
x
4.5.2 SO 126
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4.5.3 COandCO 126
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Contents vii
4.5.4 Aerosols 127
4.5.5 VolatileOrganicCompoundsVOC 128
4.5.6 ThermalPollution 129
4.5.7 Regulations 129
4.6 ThePrivateCar 129
4.6.1 PowerNeeds 130
4.6.2 AutomobileFuels 131
4.6.3 Three-WayCatalyticConverter 132
4.6.4 ElectricCar 133
4.6.5 HybridCar 134
4.7 EconomicsofEnergyConversion 134
4.7.1 CapitalCosts 134
4.7.2 LearningCurve 138
Exercises 138
References 142
5 RenewableEnergy 145
5.1 ElectricityfromtheSun 146
5.1.1 VaryingSolarInput 146
5.1.2 ElectricityfromSolarHeat:ConcentratingSolarPowerCSP 150
5.1.3 DirectConversionofLightintoElectricity:PhotovoltaicsPV 152
5.2 EnergyfromtheWind 159
5.2.1 BetzLimit 160
5.2.2 Aerodynamics 162
5.2.3 WindFarms 165
5.2.4 VerticalWindProfile 165
5.2.5 WindStatistics 167
5.2.6 StateoftheArtandOutlook 168
5.3 EnergyfromtheWater 169
5.3.1 PowerfromDams 169
5.3.2 PowerfromFlowingRivers 170
5.3.3 PowerfromWaves 170
5.3.4 PowerfromtheTides 174
5.4 BioEnergy 175
5.4.1 ThermodynamicsofBioEnergy 175
5.4.2 Stability 180
5.4.3 SolarEfficiency 180
5.4.4 Energ yfromBiomass 182
5.5 PhysicsofPhotosynthesis 183
5.5.1 BasicsofPhotosynthesis 184
5.5.2 Light-HarvestingAntennas 185
5.5.3 EnergyTransferMechanism 187
5.5.4 ChargeSeparation 190
5.5.5 FlexibilityandDisorder 193
5.5.6 Photoprotection 193
5.5.7 ResearchDirections 195
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5.6 OrganicPhotocells:theGra¨tzelCell 196
5.6.1 ThePrinciple 196
5.6.2 Efficiency 199
5.6.3 NewDevelopmentsandtheFuture 202
5.6.4 Applications 203
5.7 BioSolarEnergy 203
5.7.1 ComparisonofBiologyandTechnology 204
5.7.2 LegacyBiochemistry 207
5.7.3 ArtificialPhotosynthesis 209
5.7.4 SolarFuelswithPhotosyntheticMicroorganisms:
TwoResearchQuestions 213
5.7.5 Conclusion 213
Exercises 215
References 217
6 NuclearPower 221
6.1 NuclearFission 222
6.1.1 Principles 222
6.1.2 FourFactorFormula 226
6.1.3 ReactorEquations 229
6.1.4 StationaryReactor 231
6.1.5 TimeDependenceofaReactor 233
6.1.6 ReactorSafety 234
6.1.7 NuclearExplosives 237
6.2 NuclearFusion 238
6.3 RadiationandHealth 244
6.3.1 Definitions 244
6.3.2 NormsonExposuretoRadiation 245
6.3.3 NormalUseofNuclearPower 247
6.3.4 RadiationfromNuclearAccidents 247
6.3.5 HealthAspectsofFusion 247
6.4 ManagingtheFuelCycle 248
6.4.1 UraniumMines 249
6.4.2 Enrichment 249
6.4.3 FuelBurnup 252
6.4.4 Reprocessing 252
6.4.5 WasteManagement 253
6.4.6 Nonproliferation 256

6.5 FourthGenerationNuclearReactors 257
Exercises 258
References 259
7 DispersionofPollutants 261
7.1 Diffusion 262
7.1.1 DiffusionEquation 262
7.1.2 PointSourceinThreeDimensionsinUniformWind 267
7.1.3 EffectofBoundaries 269