Table Of ContentEnvironmental Monitoring and Characterization
by Janick Artiola, Ian L. Pepper, Mark L. Brusseau
• ISBN: 0120644770
• Pub. Date: March 2004
• Publisher: Elsevier Science & Technology Books
Artiola/Environmental Monitoring and Characterization Final Proof 2.4.2004 5:56pm page ix
PREFACE
In the 21st century, the fate of the environment has monitor the environment, but also by developing active
become a critical issue in both developed and developing strategies that allow for efficient characterization of spe-
countries throughout the world. Population increases cific environments. In addition we provide approaches to
and technological advances are creating a burden on soci- evaluate and interpret data efficiently, with significant
ety by requiring continued expansion and concomitant processes being documented via statistical analyses and,
resource use. Substantial evidence exists showing that where appropriate, model development. A particularly
such development has led to detrimental impacts on the unique feature of the text is the discussion of physical,
environment. We also know that increased societal activ- chemical, and microbial processes that effect beneficial as
ities and demands are changing soil, water, air, climate, well as detrimental influences on the environment. The
and resources in unexpected ways. This in turn has led to a text also puts into perspective site-specific remediation
renewed interest in protecting the environment and has techniques that are appropriate for localized environ-
focused attention on the concept of environmental moni- ments as well as full-scale ecosystem restoration. Finally,
toring and site characterization, including an evaluation the role of risk assessment and environmental regulations
of the physical, chemical, and biological factors that in environmental monitoring is assessed.
impact the environment. This information is necessary In summary, this book attempts to answer these ques-
for researchers, decision-makers, and the community as tions: ‘‘How should samples be taken, including why,
a whole, to implement social changes needed to preserve when, and where? How should the samples be analyzed?
and sustain a healthy environment for future generations. How should the data be interpreted?’’ This book should
The purpose of this textbook is to document the latest be useful at the senior undergraduate level, as well as to
methodologies of environmental monitoring and site students initiating graduate studies in the environmental
characterization important to society and human health science arena. The fact that contributions come from
and welfare. We know that the environment exists as a national experts all located at the University of Arizona
continuum of biosystems and physio-chemical processes ensures that the book is well integrated and uniform in its
that help sustain life on earth. Therefore environmental level of content.
monitoring should ideally consist of examining the inte- Key features of the book include:
grative nature of these processes. To this end, basic prin-
ciples of monitoring and characterization are described . The concept of integrating environmental monitor-
for different environments, considering their most rele- ing into site characterization
vant processes. Initially, sampling protocols are described, . Numerous real-life case studies
followed by documentation of quality control issues and . The use of numerous computer graphics and photo-
statistical methods for data analysis. Methods for making graphs
field measurements in soil, vadose zone, water, and at- . The integration of physical, chemical, and biological
mospheric environments are described. This includes processes
real-time monitoring, temporal and spatial issues, and . Key references relevant to each topic
the issues of scale of measurement. The book advances . Examples of problems, calculations, and thought-
the state-of-the-art by not only documenting how to provoking questions
Artiola/Environmental Monitoring and Characterization Final Proof 2.4.2004 5:56pm page xi
CONTRIBUTORS
Janick F. Artiola Edward P. Glenn
Department of Soil, Water and Environmental Science Environmental Research Laboratory
University of Arizona University of Arizona
Tucson, AZ Tucson, AZ
Martin Barackman David M. Hendricks
CH2M Hill Department of Soil, Water and Environmental Science
Redding, CA University of Arizona
Tucson, AZ
Paul W. Brown
Department of Soil, Water and Environmental Science Alfredo R. Huete
University of Arizona Department of Soil, Water and Environmental Science
Tucson, AZ University of Arizona
Tucson, AZ
Mark L. Brusseau
Department of Soil, Water and Environmental Science Raina M. Maier
Department of Hydrology and Water Resources Department of Soil, Water and Environmental Science
University of Arizona University of Arizona
Tucson, AZ Tucson, AZ
Gale B. Famison Robert MacArthur
Department of Soil, Water and Environmental Science Educational Communications & Technologies
University of Arizona University of Arizona
Tucson, AZ Tucson, AZ
Charles P. Gerba Allan D. Matthias
Department of Soil, Water and Environmental Science Department of Soil, Water and Environmental Science
University of Arizona University of Arizona
Tucson, AZ Tucson, AZ
Vanda J. Gerhart Sheri A. Musil
Environmental Research Laboratory Department of Soil, Water and Environmental Science
University of Arizona University of Arizona
Tucson, AZ Tucson, AZ
Artiola/Environmental Monitoring and Characterization Final Proof 2.4.2004 5:56pm page xii
xii Contributors
Donald E. Myers W.J. Waugh
Professor Emeritus U.S. Department of Energy
University of Arizona Grand Junction, CO
Tucson, AZ
Peter J. Wierenga
Ian L. Pepper Department of Soil, Water and Environmental Science
Environmental Research Laboratory University of Arizona
University of Arizona Tucson, AZ
Tucson, AZ
Lorne Graham Wilson
Chris Rensing Department of Hydrology and Water Resources
Department of Soil, Water and Environmental Science University of Arizona
University of Arizona Tucson, AZ
Tucson, AZ
Irfan Yolcubal
Jose´ A. Vargas-Guzma´n Department of Hydrology and Water Resources
Physical Sciences and Architecture University of Arizona
University of Queensland Tucson, AZ
Brisbane, Australia
Arthur W. Warrick
Department of Soil, Water and Environmental Science
University of Arizona
Tucson, AZ
Artiola/Environmental Monitoring and Characterization Final Proof 2.4.2004 5:56pm page xiii
REVIEWERS
Dr. Michael J. Barcelona Dr. Charles Haas
Research Professor Drexel University
Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering Department of Civil, Architectural and Environmental
Environmental and Water Resources Engineering Engineering
University of Michigan Philadelphia, PA
Ann Arbor, MI
Dr. Arthur G. Hornsby
Dr. Kirk W. Brown University of Florida
Professor Emeritus Soil and Water Science Department
Texas A & M University Gainesville, FL
College Station, TX
Dr. Lawrence H Keith
Dr. Karl Enfield Instant Reference Sources, Inc.
R.S. Kerr, U.S. EPA Laboratory Monroe, GA
Ada, OK
Dr. Ronald Turco
Dr. William T. Frankenberger Jr. Purdue University
University of California, Riverside Department of Agronomy
Department of Environmental Sciences West Lafayette, IN
Riverside, CA
Table of Contents
1 Monitoring and characterization of the environment
Sampling and data quality objectives in environmental
2
monitoring
3 Statistics and geostatistics in environmental monitoring
4 Automated data acquisition and processing
5 Maps in environmental monitoring
Geographic information systems and their use for
6
environmental monitoring
7 Soil and vadose zone sampling
8 Groundwater sampling
9 Monitoring surface waters
10 Monitoring near-surface air quality
11 Remote sensing for environmental monitoring
12 Environmental physical properties and processes
13 Chemical properties and processes
14 Environmental microbial properties and processes
15 Physical contaminants
16 Chemical contaminants
17 Microbial contaminants
18 Soil and groundwater remediation
19 Ecological restoration
20 Risk assessment and environmental regulations
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1
MONITORING AND CHARACTERIZATION
OF THE ENVIRONMENT
J.F. ARTIOLA, I.L. PEPPER, AND M.L BRUSSEAU
THE ENVIRONMENT 1 living organisms. The untrained observer may see the
ENVIRONMENTAL MONITORING 2 atmosphere as being separated from the earth’s surface.
However, to the trained observer the environment is
ENVIRONMENTAL REMEDIATION AND
composed of integrated and interconnected cycles and
RESTORATION 3 domains. We now know that the environment is a con-
SCALES OF OBSERVATION 3 tinuum of physical, chemical, and biological processes
AGENCIES 5 that cannot be easily separated from one another. Water,
CURRENT AND FUTURE STATUS OF for example, exists in three states and is found inside and
ENVIRONMENTAL MONITORING 7 on the surface of earth’s crust, in the atmosphere, and
within living organisms. It is difficult to separate the
PURPOSE OF THIS TEXTBOOK 9
physical, chemical, and biological processes of water
REFERENCES AND ADDITIONAL READING 9 within any particular environment, because water is trans-
ferred across boundaries.
Humans now have a more holistic view of the environ-
ment and recognize that many factors determine its
THE ENVIRONMENT health and preservation. This in turn has led to the
new term biocomplexity, which is defined as ‘‘the interde-
Environmental changes occur naturally and are a part of pendence of elements within specific environmental
or the result of multiple cycles and interactions. Numer- systems, and the interactions between different types of
ous natural cycles of the earth’s environment have been systems.’’ Thus, research on the individual components
studied within the framework of three major scientific of environmental systems provides limited information
disciplines: chemistry, physics, and biology. Environmen- on the system itself. We are now also concerned with
tal scientists study the dynamics of cycles, such as the sustainable and renewable versus non-renewable natural
nitrogen and water cycles, and their relationships to soil- resources as well as with biodiversity in relation to our
geologic materials, surface waters, the atmosphere, and own survival.
ENVIRONMENTAL MONITORING AND CHARACTERIZATION
Copyright 2004, Elsevier (USA). All rights reserved. 1
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2 J.F. Artiola, I.L. Pepper, and M.L Brusseau
Recently, environmental monitoring has become even
ENVIRONMENTAL MONITORING more critical as human populations increase, adding ever-
increasing strains on the environment. There are numer-
Environmental monitoring is the observation and study ous examples of deleterious environmental changes that
of the environment. In scientific terms, we wish to collect result from population increases and concentrated human
data from which we can derive knowledge (Figure 1.1). activities. For example, in theUnited States, the industrial
Thus, environmental monitoring has its role defined in and agricultural revolutions of the last 100 years have
the first three steps of the staircase and is rooted in the produced large amounts of waste by-products that, until
scientific method. Objective observations produce sound the late 1960s, were released into the environment with-
data, which in turn produce valuable information. Infor- out regard to consequences. In many parts of the de-
mation-derived knowledge usually leads to an enhanced veloping world, wastes are still disposed of without
understanding of the problem/situation, which improves treatment. Through environmental monitoring we
the chances of making informed decisions. However, it is know that most surface soils, bodies of waters, and even
important to understand that other factors, including ice caps contain trace and ultratrace levels of synthetic
political, economic, and social factors, influence decision chemicals (e.g., dioxins) and nuclear-fallout components
making. (e.g., radioactive cesium). Also, many surface waters, in-
The information generated from monitoring activities cluding rivers and lakes, contain trace concentrations of
can be used in a myriad of ways, ranging from under- pesticides because of the results of agricultural runoff and
standing the short-term fate of an endangered fish species rainfall tainted with atmospheric pollutants. The indirect
in a small stream, to defining the long-term management effects of released chemicals into the environment are also
and preservation strategies of natural resources over vast a recent cause of concern. Carbon dioxide gas from auto-
tracts of land. Box 1.1 lists some recognizable know- mobiles and power plants and Freon (refrigerant gas)
ledge-based regulations and benefits of environmental released into the atmosphere may be involved in deleteri-
monitoring. ous climatic changes.
Although Box 1.1 is not exhaustive, it does give an idea Environmental monitoring is very broad and requires a
of the major role that environmental monitoring plays multi-disciplinary scientific approach. Environmental sci-
in our lives. Many of us are rarely aware that such regula- entists require skills in basic sciences such as chemistry,
tions exist and that these are the result of ongoing moni- physics, biology, mathematics, statistics, and computer
toring activities. Nonetheless, we all receive the benefits science. Therefore, all science-based disciplines are in-
associated with these activities. volved in this endeavor.
WISDOM
UNDERSTANDING
KNOWLEDGE
INFORMATION
DATA
OBSERVATION
and
MEASUREMENT
Increasing subjectivity
FIGURE 1.1 The staircase of knowing. Science-based observations and measurements improve our understanding of the environment and lead to
wise decision-making. (From Roots, E.F. (1997) Inclusion of different knowledge systems in research. In: Terra Borealis. Traditional and Western
Scientific Environmental Knowledge. Workshop Proceedings, Northwest River, Labrador 10 & 11 Sept. 1997. No. 1. Manseau M. (ed), Institute for
Environmental Monitoring and Research, P.O. Box 1859, Station B Happy Valley–Goose Bay Labrador, Newfoundland, AOP E10. Terra Borealis
1:42–49, 1998.)
Verification
Selection
Testing
Organization
Interpretation
Comprehension
Integration
Judgment
Increasing human value added
Artiola/Environmental Monitoring and Characterization Final Proof 2.4.2004 5:57pm page 3
Monitoring and Characterization of the Environment 3
BOX 1.1 Knowledge-Based Regulation and Benefits of Weather forecasting: Anticipating weather, long-
Environmental Monitoring and short-term climatic changes, and weather-related
catastrophes, including floods, droughts, hurricanes,
Protection of public water supplies: Including and tornadoes
surface and groundwater monitoring; sources of Economic development and land planning:
water pollution; waste and wastewater treatment Resources allocation; resource exploitation
and their disposal and discharge into the environment Population growth: Density patterns, related to
Hazardous, nonhazardous and radioactive economic development and natural resources
waste management: Including disposal, reuse, Delineation: Mapping of natural resources; soil
and possible impacts to human health and the classification; wetland delineation; critical habitats;
environment water resources; boundary changes
Urban air quality: Sources of pollution, Endangered species and biodiversity:
transportation, and industrial effects on human health Enumeration of species; extinction, discovery,
Natural resources protection and management: protection
Land and soil degradation; forests and wood Global climate changes: Strategies to control
harvesting; water supplies, including lakes, rivers, and pollution emissions and weather- and health-related
oceans; recreation; food supply gaseous emissions
problem. This information is gathered with environmen-
ENVIRONMENTAL REMEDIATION tal monitoring activities.
AND RESTORATION
Environmental remediation and restoration focus on SCALES OF OBSERVATION
the development and implementation of strategies
geared to reverse negative environmental impacts. An- At the heart of environmental monitoring are the defin-
thropogenic activities often perturb environments and itions of observation, sample, and measurement, and
severely limit their capacity for regeneration. For their relationships to scale. Modern science and engineer-
example, metal-contaminated soils often have restrictive ing allow us to make observations at the micro and global
physical, chemical, and biological characteristics that scales. For example, scientists can use subatomic particles
hinder self-regenerating mechanisms. High metal con- as probes to determine atomic and molecular properties
centrations are toxic to plants and microbes such as bene- of solids, liquids, and gases. Using this technology, scien-
ficial soil bacteria. Low-soil microbial populations in tists can now measure minute quantities of chemicals in
turn slow down the rates of microbially-mediated decom- the environment. At the other end of the scale, space-
position of organic matter and nutrient cycling. Limited based satellite sensors now routinely scan and map the
plant nutrient availability leads to poor or non-existent entire surface of the earth several times a day.However, all
vegetative plant cover. This is turn increases the chances observations have a finite resolution in either two or three
for wind and water soil erosion that further degrades dimensions, which further complicates the definition of
the ecosystem, which also can generate off-site metal scale. For example, consider a satellite picture of a
2
contamination. Remediation activities are focused on re- 100 km watershed, taken with a single exposure, that
2
moving or treating the contamination, whereas resto- has a resolution of 100m . What is the scale of the obser-
2 2
ration activities are focused on rehabilitating the vation: 100 km or 100m ? Time is another variable
ecosystem. that often defines the scale of an observation. Often,
An interdisciplinary approach is critical for the success temporal environmental data are reported within a
of any remediation or restoration activity. Environmental defined time frame because most data (values) are not
remediation and restoration activities involve contribu- collected instantaneously. Small-scale or short-interval
tions from environmental scientists and engineers, soil measurements can be combined to obtain measurements
and water scientists, hydrologists, microbiologists, com- of a larger temporal scale. Therefore, the scale of a
puter scientists, and statisticians. To develop and imple- ‘‘single’’ observation is not always self-evident. Quite
ment effective environmental monitoring and restoration often the scale of a measurement has a hidden area space
programs, it is necessary to understand the major phys- and a time component. Figure 1.2 shows scale definitions
ical, chemical, and biological processes operative at for spatial and temporal domains, respectively. The
the site and to characterize the nature and extent of the actual scales may seem arbitrary, but they illustrate
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4 J.F. Artiola, I.L. Pepper, and M.L Brusseau
the range of scales that environmental data can comprise. daily data to a central repository location for permanent
Example 1.1 illustrates the scales of environmental storage and further statistical analysis. Figure 2.3a shows
measurements. an example of mean 24-hour hourly data CO concen-
trations during a winter month at Station #3. Daily values
EXAMPLE 1.1 A city air quality–monitoring station are then averagedmonthly (Figure 2.3B) and finally mean
near a busy intersection collects air samples from an inlet annual values collected from three other city CO moni-
3m above ground at a flow rate of 1 L min 1. The stream toring stations are compared (Table 1.1). Table 1.1 also
of air is passed through an infrared (IR) analyzer, and shows maximum 1-hour and 8-hour CO concentrations
carbon monoxide (CO) concentrations are measured that can be used to determine compliance with air-quality
every second. One-second–interval data are stored in the standards (see Chapter 6) at four different city locations.
instrumentmemory and every hour themean value of the The true scale and effort spent to collect these data often
1200 data points is sent by the instrument to a data logger escapes the end user. The annual values are not the result
(see Chapter 9). Subsequently, the data logger stores the of one large-scale (1 year long) measurement. They are
24 data points and computes a mean to obtain daily CO the means of thousands of small-scale (1-second interval)
averages. The data logger sends the stored hourly and measurements.
GLOBAL−Earth(>10,000km)
MESO−Continent, country, state (>100km)
INTERMEDIATE−Watershed, river, lake(>1km)
FIELD−Agric. field, waste site (>1m)
MACRO−Animal, plant, soil clod (>1mm)
MICRO Soil particle, fungi, bacteria (>1µm)
ULTRA-MICRO Virus, molecules (>1nm)
A ATOMIC−Atoms, subatomic particles (<1nm)
GEOLOGIC (> 10,000 years)
GENERATION-LIFETIME (20-100 years)
ANNUAL (>1 year)
SEASONAL (>4 months)
DAILY (>24 hours)
HOURLY (>60 minutes)
B INSTANTANEOUS (<1second)
FIGURE1.2 (A) Scales of space. Observations andmeasurements can bemade atmultiple scales. Satellites take pictures of entire earth, whereas atoms
are probed with light and subatomic particles. Intermediate, field, and macro scales of observations dominate environmental monitoring and the
remediation strategies. (B) Scales of time. Time-based observations andmeasurements can bemade atmany intervals. Geologic time changes are usually
inferred with present time observations from known time-based changes. For example, the chronological sequencing of soils (usually measured in
thousands of years) may be inferred from the appearance or disappearance of key minerals. Observations done over 1 year and each season are very
common and useful in monitoring critical water- and air-quality changes.
