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ENVIRONMENTAL CHEMISTRY
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ENVIRONMENTAL
CHEMISTRY
Fifth Edition
Colin Baird
University of Western Ontario
Michael Cann
University of Scranton
W. H. Freeman and Company • New York
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Executive Editor: Jessica Fiorillo
Development Editor: Brittany Murphy
Marketing Manager: Alicia Brady
Media and Supplements Editor: Dave Quinn
Senior Media Producer: Keri Fowler
Editorial Assistant: Nicholas Ciani
Senior Project Editor: Vivien Weiss
Photo Editor: Ted Szczepanski
Photo Researcher: Cecilia Varas
Art Director: Diana Blume
Illustrations: Macmillan Publishing Solutions
Senior Illustration Coordinator: Bill Page
Production Coordinator: Susan Wein
Composition: MPS Ltd.
Printing and Binding: RR Donnelley
Library of Congress Control Number: 2011945363
ISBN-13: 978-1-4292-7704-4
ISBN-10: 1-4292-7704-1
© 2012, 2008, 2005, 1999 by W. H. Freeman and Company
All rights reserved
Printed in the United States of America
First printing
W. H. Freeman and Company
41 Madison Avenue
New York, NY 10010
Houndmills, Basingstoke RG21 6XS, England
www.whfreeman.com
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Contents
Preface xii
Introduction to Environmental Problems, Sustainability, and Green
Chemistry xix
PART I Atmospheric Chemistry and Air Pollution 1
Chapter 1 Stratospheric Chemistry: The Ozone Layer 3
Introduction 3
The Physics, Chemistry, and Biology of UV 6
Activity 11
Stratospheric Chemistry: The Ozone Layer 13
Catalytic Processes of Ozone Destruction 20
Box 1-1 The Rates of Free-Radical Reactions 22
Box 1-2 Calculating the Rates of Reaction Steps 24
Box 1-3 The Steady-State Analysis of Atmospheric Reactions 30
Review Questions 33
Additional Problems 34
Chapter 2 The Ozone Holes 37
Introduction 37
The Ozone Hole and Mid-Latitude Ozone Depletion 37
The Chemistry of Ozone Depletion 40
Polar Ozone Holes 49
Activity 49
Box 2-1 The Chemistry Behind Mid-Latitude Decreases in Stratospheric
Ozone 52
The Chemicals That Cause Ozone Destruction 54
Green Chemistry: The Replacement of CFC and Hydrocarbon Blowing
Agents with Carbon Dioxide in Producing Foam Polystyrene 57
Green Chemistry: Harpin Technology—Eliciting Nature’s Own Defenses
Against Diseases 64
Review Questions 65
Green Chemistry Questions 66
Additional Problems 66
Chapter 3 The Chemistry of Ground-Level Air Pollution 69
Introduction 69
Box 3-1 The Interconversion of Gas Concentrations 71
Urban Ozone: The Photochemical Smog Process 76
Activity 81
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vi Contents
Improving Air Quality: Photochemical Smog 87
Green Chemistry: Strategies to Reduce VOCs Emanating from
Organic Solvents 101
Green Chemistry: A Nonvolatile, Reactive Coalescent for the
Reduction of VOCs in Latex Paints 101
Green Chemistry: The Replacement of Organic Solvents with
Supercritical and Liquid Carbon Dioxide; Development of Surfactants
for This Compound 103
Box 3-2 Supercritical Carbon Dioxide 104
Green Chemistry: Using Ionic Liquids to Replace Organic Solvents:
Cellulose, a Naturally Occurring Polymer Replacement for
Petroleum-Derived Polymers 105
Improving Air Quality: Sulfur-Based Emissions 109
Particulates in Air Pollution 118
Air Quality Indices and Size Characteristics for Particulate Matter 126
Box 3-3 The Distribution of Particle Sizes in an Urban Air Sample 129
Review Questions 131
Green Chemistry Questions 131
Additional Problems 132
Chapter 4 The Environmental and Health
Consequences of Polluted Air—Outdoors and Indoors 135
Introduction 135
Acid Rain 137
Activity 143
The Human Health Effects of Outdoor Air Pollutants 145
Indoor Air Pollution 152
Review Questions 161
Additional Problems 162
PART II Energy and Climate Change 163
Chapter 5 The Greenhouse Effect 165
Introduction 165
The Mechanism of the Greenhouse Effect 166
Activity 169
Box 5-1 A Simple Model of the Greenhouse Effect 173
Molecular Vibrations: Energy Absorption by Greenhouse Gases 175
The Major Greenhouse Gases 177
Other Greenhouse Gases 187
Box 5-2 Determining the Emissions of “Old Carbon” Sources
of Methane 190
The Climate-Modifying Effects of Aerosols 197
Box 5-3 Cooling over China from Haze 202
Global Warming to Date 202
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Contents vii
Geoengineering Earth’s Climate to Combat Global Warming 210
Atmospheric Residence Time Analysis 216
Review Questions 219
Additional Problems 220
Chapter 6 Energy Use, Fossil Fuels, CO Emissions,
2
and Global Climate Change 223
Introduction 223
Global Energy Usage 224
Fossil Fuels 230
Box 6-1 Shale Gas 233
Box 6-2 Petroleum Refining: Fractional Distillation 237
Box 6-3 The Deepwater Horizon Oil Spill Disaster 242
Green Chemistry: Polylactic Acid—The Production of Biodegradable
Polymers from Renewable Resources; Reducing the Need for Petroleum
and the Impact on the Environment 249
Sequestration of CO 252
2
The Storage of Carbon Dioxide 257
Activity 264
Other Schemes to Reduce Greenhouse Gases 264
Box 6-4 Removing CO from the Atmosphere: Direct
2
Air Capture 265
Carbon Dioxide Emissions in the Future 267
Activity 268
The Extent and Potential Consequences of Future Global
Warming 276
Review Questions 288
Green Chemistry Questions 289
Additional Problems 290
Chapter 7 Biofuels and Other Alternative Fuels 291
Introduction 291
Biomass and Biofuels: Issues 292
Ethanol 295
Biodiesel from Plant Oils and from Algae 303
Activity 310
Green Chemistry: Bio-based Liquid Fuels and Chemicals 310
Green Chemistry: Recycling Carbon Dioxide—A Feedstock for the
Production of Chemicals and Liquid Fuels 311
Thermochemical Production of Fuels, Including Methanol 313
Hydrogen—Fuel of the Future? 320
Review Questions 334
Green Chemistry Questions 335
Additional Problems 336
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viii Contents
Chapter 8 Renewable Energy Technologies: Hydroelectric,
Wind, Solar, Geothermal, and Marine Energy and
Their Storage 337
Introduction 337
Hydroelectric Power 338
Wind Energy 340
Marine Energy: Wave and Tidal Power 348
Geothermal Energy 349
Direct Solar Energy 354
The Storage of Renewable Energy—Electricity and Heat 369
Activity 371
Review Questions 371
Additional Problems 372
Chapter 9 Radioactivity, Radon, and Nuclear Energy 373
Introduction 373
Radioactivity and Radon Gas 374
Box 9-1 Steady-State Analysis of the Radioactive Decay
Series 379
Nuclear Energy 383
Environmental Problems of Uranium Fuel 390
Box 9-2 Radioactive Contamination by Plutonium Production 395
Accidents and the Future of Nuclear Power 398
Nuclear Fusion 402
Review Questions 405
Additional Problems 406
PART III Water Chemistry and Water Pollution 407
Chapter 10 The Chemistry of Natural Waters 409
Introduction 409
Oxidation–Reduction Chemistry in Natural Waters 413
Green Chemistry: Enzymatic Preparation of Cotton Textiles 418
Acid–Base and Solubility Chemistry in Natural Waters:
The Carbonate System 430
Box 10-1 Derivation of the Equations for Species Diagram
Curves 432
The CO–Carbonate System 432
2
Box 10-2 Solubility of CaCO in Buffered Solutions 437
3
Ion Concentrations in Natural Waters and Drinking Water 442
Activity 445
Review Questions 451
Green Chemistry Questions 452
Additional Problems 452
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