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English Grammar
for Today
A New Introduction
Second Edition
Geoffrey Leech
Margaret Deuchar
Robert Hoogenraad
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© Geoffrey Leech, Margaret Deuchar, Robert Hoogenraad, 1982, 2006
All rights reserved. No reproduction, copy or transmission of
this publication may be made without written permission.
No paragraph of this publication may be reproduced, copied or
transmitted save with written permission or in accordance with
the provisions of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988,
or under the terms of any licence permitting limited copying
issued by the Copyright Licensing Agency, 90 Tottenham Court
Road, London W1T 4LP.
Any person who does any unauthorized act in relation to this
publication may be liable to criminal prosecution and civil
claims for damages.
The authors have asserted their rights to be identified
as the authors of this work in accordance with the
Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.
First edition published 1982
Second edition published 2006 by
PALGRAVE MACMILLAN
Houndmills, Basingstoke, Hampshire RG21 2XS and
175 Fifth Avenue, New York, N.Y. 10010
Companies and representatives throughout the world
PALGRAVE MACMILLAN is the global academic imprint of the Palgrave
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Union and other countries.
ISBN-13: 978-14039-1641-9 hardback
ISBN-10: 1-4039-1641-1 hardback
ISBN-13: 978-1-4039-1642-6 paperback
ISBN-10: 1-4039-1642-X paperback
This book is printed on paper suitable for recycling and made from
fully managed and sustained forest sources. Logging, pulping and
manufacturing processes are expected to conform to the environmental
regulations of the country of origin.
A catalogue record for this book is available
from the British Library.
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Leech, Geoffrey N.
English grammar for today: a new introduc/t Geiofofrne y Leech, Margaret
Deuchar, Robert Hoogenraad.—2nd ed.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 1-4039-1641-1 (hardcover)—ISBN 1—4039-1642-X (pbk.)
1. English language—Grammar. I. Deuchar, M. (Margaret) II. Hoogenraad,
Robert. III. Title.
PE1112.L426 2005 2005050382
MO) ESA et
1S 14 13 2 LiL uy 08
Printed and bound in China
Contents
Foreword
Preface
Symbols and conventions
Acknowledgements
Part A
Introduction
1 What Grammar Is and Is Not
1.1 Grammar and its role in language
1.2. ‘Good’ and ‘bad’ grammar
1.3. Variation in language
1.4 English and other languages
1.5 Grammar and effective communication
1.6 Conclusion
Exercises
2 Getting Started with Grammar
2.1 Grammar in prose literature
2.2 Grammar in poetry
2.3. A taste of morphology: the structure of words
2.4 Simple and complex words
2.5 Derivational and inflectional suffixes
2.6 — Summary: the main points of English morphology
Exercises
Part B
Analysis
3 Sentences and Their Parts
3.1. Prologue: parts of speech
3.2. The hierarchy of units
3.3. Grammatical notations
3.4 Using tests
3.5 Form and function
3.6 Summary
Exercises
vi CONTENTS
4 Words
4.1. Open and closed word classes
4.2. The open classes
4.3 Closed word classes
4.4 Summary
Exercises
5 Phrases
5.1. Classes of phrase
5.2. Main and subordinate phrases
5.3. Noun phrases and related phrase classes
5.4 The adjective phrase and the adverb phrase
5.5 The verb phrase (VP)
5.6 Summary
Exercises
6 Clauses
6.1 Elements of the clause
6.2 Complex sentences
6.3. Tensed and tenseless clauses
6.4 Declarative, interrogative and imperative clauses
6.5 Active and passive clauses
6.6 More on clause structure
6.7 Clause patterns
6.8 The structure of tenseless clauses
6.9 Parsing a simple sentence
6.10 Summary
Exercises
7 Subordination and Coordination
7.1. Subordinate clauses (SCI)
7.2 Tensed subordinate clauses
7.3. The functions of subordinate clauses
7.4 Tenseless subordinate clauses
7.5 Direct and indirect subordination
7.6 Skeleton analysis
7.7 Coordination
7.8 Summary and conclusion
Exercises
8 Basic and Derived Structures
8.1 Constituent structure grammar
8.2. Basic and derived structures
8.3. ‘Missing’ elements
8.4 Split constituents
8.5 ‘Double analysis’
CONTENTS vii
SE ed
8.6 Back to parsing 133
8.7. Style and structure-changing rules 134
8.8 Summary and conclusion 17
Exercises 137,
Part C
Applications 139
9 Working with Discourse: Speech and Writing 141
9.1 Introduction 141
9.2 Speech and writing: which comes first? 141
9.3. Functions of writing and speech 142
9.4 The form of speech and writing 143
9.5 Linguistic characteristics of speech and writing 144
9.6 An analysis of spoken and written discourse iI
9.7 Conclusion 154
154
Exercises
10 Working with Discourse: Tenor and Domain 156
10.1 Introduction 156
10:25 Tenor 156
10.3. Tenor and discourse 159
162
10.4 Domain
10.5 Domain and discourse 164
10.6 Combining categories of use 166
Exercises ; 168
11. Working with Literary Discourse 172
11.1 How to analyse style 172.
11.2 Illustrative extract 179
11.3. Outline analysis (with questions for further study) 180
11.4 Further illustrative extracts for discussion 181
182
Exercises
12 Grammar and Problems of Usage 184
12.1 Opinions about grammar 184
12.2 Prescriptive ‘rules’ 185
12.3. The priests of usage 186
12.4 Problems of personal pronouns 187
12.5 The problem of number concord 190
12.6 The problem of the generic masculine 191,
1h
12.7. Problems of ellipsis
12.8 Dangling tenseless clauses 192
194
12.9 Conclusion
194
Exercises
viii CONTENTS
13. Grammar and composition 196
13.1. Grammar and writing 196
13.2. ‘Make your language easy to follow’ 196
13,3. “Be cheart 201
13.4 ‘Be economical’ 202
13.5 ‘Be clear but concise’: clarity versus economy 203
13.6 ‘Be effective’ 205
Exercises 206
Answers to Exercises 209
Notes 228
Further Reading 230
Index 233
