Engineering Design Handbook - Elements of Aircraft and Missile Propulsion:

529 Pages·2011·23.47 MB·English

AMC PAMPHLET AMCP 706-285
ENGINEERING DESIGN
HANDBOOK
ELEMENTS OF AIRCRAFT
AND
MISSILE PROPULSION
HEADQUARTERS, U .S. ARMY MATERIEL COMMAND JULY 1969
AMCP 706-285
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
Figure No . Title Page
1-1 Essential Elements of an Air-breathing Jet Engine ....... 1-6
1-2 Essential Elements of a Jet Propulsion System ......... 1-8
1-3 Fin-stabilized Rocket Motor ....................... 1-8
1-4 Development of Thrust in a Rocket Motor ............. 1-9
1-5 Essential Elements of a Liquid Bipropellant Rocket
Engine ....................................... 1-12
1-6 Principal Elements of an Uncooled Liquid Bipropellant
Rocket Engine ................................. 1-13
1-7 Essential Elements of an Internal-burning Case-bonded
Solid Propellant Rocket Motor ..................... 1-14
1-8 Essential Features of a Hybrid Chemical Rocket Engine ... 1-15
2- 1 Control Surface and Control Volume Enclosing a Region
of a Flowing Fluid ............................... 2-5
2-2 Transport of Momentum by a Flowing Fluid ........... 2-5
2-3 Forces Acting on a Flowing Fluid ................... 2-8
2-4 Air-breathing Jet Engine in a Relative Coordinate System . . 2-8
2-5 Determination of the Thrust Developed by a Jet
Propulsion System ............................... 2-10
3- 1 Control Surface Enclosing a Region in a Flowing Fluid to
Which Heat Is Added and Which Does Work on Its
Surroundings ................................... 3-9
3-2 Element of a Control Surface Which Encloses a Region in
a Flowing Fluid ................................. 3-10
3-3 Energy Balance for a One-dimensional Steady Flow ..... 3-11
3-4 Comparison of Adiabatic and Isentropic Flow Processes
on the hs-plane ................................. 3-16
3-5 Isentropic Flow Expansion of a Gas to the Critical
Condition (u = a*) ............................... 3-19
3-6 A Fanno Line Plotted in the hs-plane ................. 3-24
3-7 Comparison of Fanno Lines for Two Different Values of
the Flow Density (G = m/A) ....................... 3-25
3-8 Determination of Duct Length To Accomplish a Specified
Change in Flow Mach Number (Fanno Line) ........... 3-27
3-9 Flow Parameters for a Fanno Line for a Gas with
y=1.40 ..................................... 3-30
3-10 Physical Situation for a Rayleigh Flow ............... 3-31
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AMCP 706-285
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS (Continued)
Figure No. Title Page
3-1 1 Rayleigh Line Plotted in the Pv-plane ................. 3-33
3-1 2 Rayleigh Line Plotted in the hs- (or Ts-) plane. .......... 3-34
3-1 3 Flow Parameters for a Rayleigh Flow as a Function of
M,for7=1.40 ................................. 3-36
3-14 Development of Compression Shock ................. 3-3 8
4- 1 Two Basic Types of Nozzles Employed in Jet
Propulsion Engines ............................. 4-4
4-2 Ideal Nozzle Flow in Converging Nozzles ............. 4-6
4-3 Flow Factor J/ for a Converging Nozzle As a Function of
the Expansion Ratio rt ........................... 4-9
4-4 Mass Flow Rate As a Function of the Nozzle Expansion
Ratio, for a Fixed Value of 7 .. ..................... 4-1 1
4-5 Enthalpy Converted into Kinetic Energy by Isentropic
Expansions in Converging and Converging-diverging
Nozzles ....................................... 4-3 2
4-6 Flow Characteristics of a Converging-diverging (or De Laval)
Nozzle Passing the Critical Mass Flow Rate m* ......... 4-13
4-7 Parameter (G&*)/Po As a Function of Pt/Po for
Ideal Nozzle Flow (7 = 1.25) ....................... 4-15
4-8 Area Ratio A,/A* for Complete Expansion As a Function
of the Nozzle Pressure Ratio Po/P, for Different Values
of 7 = cp/cv ................................... 4-17
4-9 Ratio of the Isentropic Exit Velocity uk to the Isentropic
Throat Velocity u; As a Function of the Nozzle Pressure
Ratio Po /Px for Different Values of 7 = cp/cv ......... 4-1 8
4-10 Expansion Ratio Pe/Po and Exit Mach Number Me As
Function of the Area Ratio A*/Ae for a Converging-
diverging Nozzle Passing the Critical Mass Flow Rate m*. . 4-2 1
4-1 1 Pressure Distributions in a Converging-diverging Nozzle
Under Different Operating Conditions ............... 4-22
4-1 2 Conical Converging-diverging Nozzle Operating With
Overexpansion ................................. 4-23
4-1 3 Correlation of Data on Jet Separation in Conical Nozzles
for Rocket Motors (According to Reference 10) ....... 4-25
4-14 General Characteristics of a Conical Converging-
diverging Nozzle ............................... 4-30
4-1 5 Radial Flow in a Conical Nozzle ..................... 4-3 2
4-1 6 Divergence Loss Coefficient X as a Function of the Semi-
divergence Half-angle a for a Conical Nozzle ........... 4-3 3
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AMCP 706-285
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS (Continued)
Figure No. Title Page
4-1 7 General Features of a Contoured or Bell-shaped Nozzle . . . 435
4-1 8 Essential Features of an Annular Nozzle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-37
4-19 Essential Features of a Plug Nozzle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-38
4-20 Essential Features of an Expansion-deflection or
E-DNozzle ................................... 4-39
5- 1 Thermodynamic Conditions for a Chemical Rocket Nozzle
Operating Under Steady State Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-3
5-2 Forces Acting on a Rocket-propelled Body in
Rectilinear Motion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-10
5-3 Drag Coefficient As a Function of the Flight Mach Number
for Two Angles of Attack . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-12
5-4 Ideal Burnout Velocity vbi for a Single Stage Vehicle As
a Function of Effective Jet Velocity c for Different
Values of Vehicle Mass Ratio m, /mb . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-15
6-1 Dissociation in Percent as a Function of Gas Temperature
for CO,, H,O, H,, 0,, HF, CO, and N, at 500 psia . . . . . 6-7
6-2 Isentropic Exhaust Velocity as a Function of Mixture
Ratio m, /mf for Different Values of Pc/P$ropellants:
Nitrogen Tetroxide (Nz 04)P lus 50% Aerozine-50-
50% Hydrazine (NzH4)a nd 50% Unsymmetrical
Dimethyl Hydrazine (CJH,), mN, H, ', ( UDMH) . . . . . . . . . . . 6-8
6-3 Velocity Parameter ue/4 as a Function of Pg /Pe
(for a Range of 10 to 50) for Different Values of
y=c,/cv ..................................... 6-9
6-4 Velocity Parameter ue/@, / w a s a Function of P : /Pe
(for a Range of 40 to 200) for Different Values of
y=c& ..................................... 6-10
r
6-5 Values of the Parameter = and
rl = I' G a sFu nctions of y . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-12
6-6 Parallel Flow Vacuum Thrust Coefficient (CF)~ as a
Function of Nozzle Area Ratio E . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-14
6-7 Parameter (P,/Pc)e as a Function of the Nozzle Area
Ratio€ ....................................... 6-15
6-8 Nozzle Area Ratio e as a Function of Pc/Pe (0 to 20)
for Different Values of y . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-16
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AMCP 706-285
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS (Continued)
Figure No. Title Page
6-9 Nozzle Area Ratio e as a Function of P,/Pe (20 to 50)
for Different Values of 7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-17
,
6-10 Nozzle Area Ratio E as a Function of Pc/Pe (50 to 200)
for Different Values of 7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-18
6-1 1 Nozzle Area Ratio E = A,/At as a Function of the Mixture
Ratio and Different Values of P,/Pe for the N, 0, -
Aerozine-50 Propellant Combination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-19
6-1 2 Ideal Characteristic Velocity c*‘ as a Function of Mixture
Ratio for Different Combustion Pressures P,;
Propellants: N,O, Plus Aerozine-50 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-21
613 Ideal Specific Impulse I’ as a Function of the Mixture
SP
Ratio (mo /mf ) for Several Liquid Propellant
Combinations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-22
,
6-14 Combustion Temperature as a Function of the Mixture
Ratio (mo/mf) for Several Liquid Propellants . . . . . . . 6-24
6-1 5 Density Impulse Id as a Function of the Mixture Ratio
(mo /mf) for Several Liquid Propellant Systems . . . . . . . 6-25
7- 1 Case-bonded Chamber . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-8
8- 1 Piobert’s Law of Burning. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-4
8-2 Combustion Schematic for a Double-base Solid
Propellant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-6
8-3 Combustion Schematic for a Composite Solid Propellant. . . 8-8
8-4 Linear Burning Rate ro (at 60°F) for Several Composite
Propellants Made With the Same Binder Fuel and
Different Kinds and Amounts of Inorganic Oxidizers. . . . . 8-10
8- 5 Terminology and Phenomena Associated With Unstable
Burning in Solid Propellant Rocket Motors . . . . . . . . . . . 8-15
8-6 Types of Burning Observed in Solid Propellant Rocket
Motors ....................................... 8-16
8- 7 Some Typical Propellant Grain Configurations . . . . . . . . . 8-21
8-8 Effect of Variations in the Area of the Burning Surface of
a Solid Propellant Grain on the Pressure-time Curve . . . . . 8-22
8-9 Section Through a Rocket Motor Nozzle. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-29
8-10 Jet Deflection To Achieve Attitude Control . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-30
8-1 1 Mechanical Means for Effecting Thrust Vector Control . . . 8-31
8-1 2 Movable Nozzles for TVC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-33
,
8-1 3 Secondary Injection for TVC . . . . . . . . . . . i . . . . . . . . . . . 8-34
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AMCP 706-285
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS (Continued)
Figure No. Title Page
9- 1 Comparison of Specific Impulses Obtained With Several
Liquid Fuels Reacted With Liquid Fluorine and With
Liquid Oxygen ................................. 9-16
9- 2 Enthalpy of Combustion of Several Fuels With Liquid
Oxygen ....................................... 9-25
10-1 Essential Elements of a Liquid Bipropellant Thrust
Chamber ..................................... 10-4
10-2 Nine Different Injector Patterns for Liquid Bipropellant
Thrust Chambers ............................... 10-6
10-3 Cooling Systems for Rocket Thrust Chambers ........... 10-12
10-4 Typical Mean Circumferential Heat Flux Distribution
Along a Thrust Chamber Wall ..................... 10-13
10-5 Application of an Ablating Material to a Liquid
Propellant Thrust Chamber ......................... 10-18
10-6 Heat Balances for Ablation Cooling ................... 10-19
10-7 Diagrammatic Arrangement of a Stored Gas Pressurization
System ....................................... 10-21
10-8 Schematic Arrangement of the Components of a Turbo-
pump Pressurization System ....................... 10-23
11-1 Essential Features of a Hybrid Rocket Engine With Head-
end Injection of the Liquid Oxidizer ................. 11-2
11-2 Essential Features of an Afterburning Hybrid Rocket
Engine ....................................... 11-3
11-3 Variations in Instantaneous and System Specific Impulse
During the Firing of a Hybrid Rocket Engine ......... 11-10
11-4 Typical Pressure-time Curve for a Hybrid Rocket Engine; . . 11-1 1
11-5 Three Types of Injectors That Have Been Utilized in
Hybrid Rocket Engines ........................... 11-15
12-1 Essential Features of the Ramjet Engine ............... 12-9
12-2 Essential Features of the Turbojet Engine ............. 12-12
12-3 Components of Gas Generator for an Afterburning
Turbojet Engine ................................. 12-13
12-4 Arrangement of the Components of an Afterburning
Turbojet Engine ................................. 12-14
12-5 Essential Features of a Turbofan Engine ............... 12-15
12-6 Essential Features of a Turboshaft Engine ............. 12-16
12-7 Essential Features of a Turboprop Engine ............. 12-18
12-8 Historical Trend in the Maximum Allowable Temperatures
for Turbine Disk. Blade. and Vane Materials ........... 12-22
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AMCP 706-285
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS (Continued)
Figure No. Title Page
12-9 Increase in Overall Efficiency of Gas-turbine Jet
Engines Since 1945 ............................ 12-25
12-10 Comparison of TSFC’s for Air-breathing and Rocket
Engines ....................................... 12-26
12-1 1( A) Specific Output Characteristics As a Function of Cycle
Pressures .................................... 12-29
12-1 1(B) Specific Fuel Consumption Characteristics As a Function
of Cycle Pressures .............................. 12 -30
13-1 Subsonic Inlet With Solely External Compression ...... 13-3
13-2 Subsonic Internal-compression Diffuser .............. 13-4
13-3 Diffusion Processes Plotted on the hs-plane ............ 13-6
13-4 Design and Off-design Operation of the Normal Shock
Diffuser ...................................... 13-8
13-5 Schematic Diagram of a Conical Shock (Ostwatitsch
type) Supersonic Diffuser ........................ 13-10
13 -6 Three Principal Operating Modes for Supersonic External
Compression Diffusers .......................... 13-12
13-7 Multiple Conical Shock Supersonic Diffusion System .... 13-13
13-8 Total and Static Pressure Ratios As a Function of the
Free-stream Mach Number for Supersonic Diffusers
With Different Numbers of Shocks ................ 13-14
14-1 Schematic Arrangement of an Axially Symmetric Ram-
jet Engine for Supersonic Flight .................. 14-2
14-2 Flow of Cold Air Through a Shaped Duct ............ 14-3
14-3 Effect of Varying the Exit Area of a Shaped Duct Passing
an Internal Flow of Cold Air ...................... 14-4
14-4 Variation in the Static Pressure and Gas Velocity Inside
a Ramjet Engine (M, = 2.0) ...................... 14-6
14-5 Calculated Values of the Net Thrust of Ramjet Engines
As a Function of the Flight Mach Number .......... 14-9
14-6 Gross Thrust Characteristics of a Fixed-geometry Ramjet
Engine As a Function of the Flight Mach Number
(Constant Fuel-air Ratiofand a Fixed Altitude 2). ..... 14-11
14-7 Variation of Gross Thrust Coefficient C F ~fo r a Fixed-
geometry Ramjet Engine With Flight Mach Number M, ;
(A) With a Constant Combustion Stagnation Tempera-
ture TY at Two Altitudes; and (B) With Two Different
Fuel-air Ratios at a Fixed Altitude. ................. 14-12
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AMCP 706-285
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS (Continued)
Figure No. Title Page
14-8 Best Operating Ranges for Supersonic Diffusers for
Fixed-geometry Ramjet Engines .................. 14-15
14-9 Diagrammatic Cross-section Through a SCRAM JET
Engine ...................................... 14-17
14-10 SCRAMJET Engine Diffusion Process Plotted in the
hsplane ...................................... 14-19
15-1 Isentropic Diffusion and Air Compression Processes
Plotted in the hs-plane .......................... 15-3
15-2 Diffuser Performance Charts ...................... 15-5
15-3 Expansion Processes for Turboshaft, Turboprop, and
Turbojet Engines Plotted in the hs-plane ............ 15-7
15-4 Ideal Thermodynamic Cycle for a Turboshaft Engine .... 15-1 1
15-5 Comparison of Actual and Ideal Turboshaft Engine
Cycles ...................................... 15-14
15-6 Thermal Efficiency of Turboshaft Engine As a Function
of the Cycle Pressure Ratio, With the Turbine Inlet
Temperature as a Parameter ...................... 15-16
15-7 Specific Output of Turboshaft Engine as a Function of
the Cycle Pressure Ratio, With the Turbine Inlet
Temperature as a Parameter ...................... 15-17
15-8 Air-rate of the Turboshaft Engine as a Function of the
Cycle Pressure Ratio, With the Turbine Inlet Tempera-
ture as a Parameter ............................. 15-19
15-9 Work-ratio of Turboshaft Engine as a Function of the
Cycle Pressure Ratio, With the Turbine Inlet Tempera-
ture as a Parameter ............................ 15-20
15-10 Thermal Efficiency of Turboshaft Engine as a Function
vt
of the Cycle Pressure Ratio, With q, and as
Parameters .................................... 15 -2 1
15-1 1 Specific Output of Turboshaft Engine as a Function of
the Cycle Pressure Ratio for Different Values of
Machine Efficiency ............................ 15-22
15-12 Turbine Inlet Temperature T: as a Function of the
Optimum Cycle Pressure Ratio for Maximum Specific
Output (Turboshaft Engine) ...................... 15-23
15-13 Effect of Air Intake Temperature (To = T, ) Upon the
Designpoint Performance Characteristics of Turbo-
shaft Engine .................................. 15-24
15-14 Effect of Pressure Drop on the Specific Output and
Thermal Efficiency of Turboshaft Engine ............ 15-25
xxi x
AMCP 706-285
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS (Continued)
Figure No. Title Page
15-15 Component Arrangements for a Regenerative Turbo-
shaft Engine .................................. 15-26
15-16 Thermal Efficiency and Specific Output as Functions
of Cycle Pressure Ratio for Regenerative Turbo-
shaft Engines .................................. 15-31
15-17 Thermal Efficiency for Regenerative Turboshaft Engines
as a Function of Cycle Pressure Ratio, With eR as a
Parameter, for Three Different Turbine Inlet
Temperatures .................................. 15-32
15-1 8 Component Arrangement and Thermodynamic Cycle
for the Turboprop Engine ........................ 15-33
15-19 S-FC as a Function of Compressor Pressure Ratio With
Flight Speed as a Parameter (Turboprop Engine) ...... 15-35
15-20 S-FC as a Function of the Percent of Energy in Jet,
With Flight Speed as a Parameter (Turboprop Engine) . . 1 5-36
1 5-2 1 Effect of Altitude on the -SFC of Turboprop Engines. ... 15-37
15-22 Effect of Turbine and Compressor Isentropic Efficiencies
and Turbine Inlet Temperature Upon the Performance
Characteristics of Turboprop Engines .............. 15-39
15 -23 Operating Characteristics of a Typical Turboprop Engine. . 15-40
15-24 Thermodynamic Cycle and Component Arrangement for
the Turbojet Engine ............................. 15-42
15-25 Dimensionless Enthalpy Change for Propulsive Nozzle
as a Function of the Compressor Pressure Ratio, With
Flight Mach Number as a Parameter (Turbojet Engine) . . 15-44
15-26 Dimensionless Thrust Parameter h and Overall Efficiency
qo as Functions of the Compressor Pressure Ratio
(Turbojet Engine) .............................. 15-45
15-27 Dimensionless Thrust Parameter h for Turbojet Engine,
and Its Overall Efficiency qo as Functions of the Cycle
Temperature Ratio a,W ith Flight Mach Number as a
Para meter .................................... 15-47
15-28 TSFC and Specific Thrust I, as Functions of the Com-
pressor Pressure Ratio, With Flight Speed as a
Parameter (Turbojet Engine) ...................... 15-48
15-29 Arrangement of Components for a Turbofan Engine .... 15-50
A- 1 Specific Heats of Ideal Gases as Functions of the
Specific Heat Ratio ............................ A-1 1
A-2 Control Surface Enclosing a Control Volume in a
Region of Flowing Fluid ........................ A-16
xxx
AMCP 706-285
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS (Continued)
Figure No . Title Page
A-3 Control Volume for a One-dimensional Flow .......... A-17
A-4 Control Surface Enclosing a Region in a Flowing Fluid
to Which Heat is Added and Which Does Work on
Its Surroundings .............................. A-21
A-5 Element of a Control Surface Which Encloses a Region
in a Flowing Fluid .............................. A-22
A-6 Energy Balance for a Steady One-dimensional Flow .... A-23
A-I Comparison of Isentropic and Adiabatic Flow Processes
in the hs-plane ................................ A-32
A-8 Isentropic Flow Expansion of a Gas to the Critical
Condition .................................... A-40
A-9 Area Configuration for Nozzle or Diffuser Action. for
the One-dimensional Flow of an Ideal Gas ............ A-45
A-10 Converging-diverging Flow Passage .................. A-45
A-1 1 Converging-diverging Flow Passage Which Passes the
Critical Mass Flow Rate nt* ...................... A-47
A-12 Functional Relationship Between dA/dx and x for the
Flow of an Ideal Gas in a Converging-diverging Flow
Passage ...................................... A-48
A-13 One-dimensional Passage With Adiabatic Flow ........ A-50
A-14 One-dimensional Flow Passage Passing an Adiabatic Flow
in the Presence of Wall Friction .................... A-50
A-15 Adiabatic Flow in a Constant Area Duct in the Presence
of Wall Friction (Fanno Flow) .................... A-53
A-16 A Fanno Line Plotted in the hs-plane ................ A-54
A-17 Two Fanno Lines Plotted in the hs-plane .............. A-55
A-18 Determination of the Duct Length Required for
Accomplishing a Specified Change in the Flow Mach
Number. for a Fanno Flow ...................... A-58
A-19 Frictionless Flow in a Constant Area Duct With Heat
Addition (Rayleigh Flow) ........................ A-65
A-20 Rayleigh Line Plotted in the Pv-plane ................ A-66
A-2 1 Conditions for Maximum EnthaIpy and for Maximum
Entropy for a Rayleigh Line in the Pv-plane .......... A-68
A-22 Rayleigh Line Plotted in the hs- (or Ts-) plane .......... A-69
A-23 Development of a Compression Shock ................ A-72
A-24 Propagation of Sound Waves from a Point Source ...... A-73
A-25 Pressure Waves Produced by a Body Moving With Sub-
sonic Speed (Small Disturbances) .................. A-74
A-26 Propagation of a Small Disturbance by a Body (A)
Moving at Supersonic Speed. and (B) in a Uniform
Supersonic Flow Field .......................... A-75
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