Table Of ContentVictor C. Li
Engineered
Cementitious
Composites (ECC)
Bendable Concrete for Sustainable and
Resilient Infrastructure
MATERIALS.SPRINGER.COM
Engineered Cementitious Composites (ECC)
Victor C. Li
Engineered Cementitious
Composites (ECC)
Bendable Concrete for Sustainable and
Resilient Infrastructure
With410Figuresand37Tables
VictorC.Li
DepartmentofCivilandEnvironmentalEngineering
UniversityofMichigan
AnnArbor,MI,USA
ISBN978-3-662-58437-8 ISBN978-3-662-58438-5(eBook)
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-662-58438-5
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Foreword
Those who can, do; those who can’t, teach. Probably no other proverb causes
academicsandprofessorstocringemore,but,fortunately,itiswrong.Asevidence,
Ipresentthiswonderfulbookwrittenbyadistinguishedprofessorwhodidcreatea
newfieldincivilengineering.Basedontherigorousfoundationsofmicromechanics
coupledwithaninsightfulunderstandingofthemicrostructureexistingincomposite
cementitious materials, Professor Victor Li developed Engineered Cementitious
Composites (ECC), a lasting contribution to the design and construction of the
civilinfrastructure.
OneofthemajorbenefitsofbeinginvitedtowritethisforewordisthatIreceived
anadvancedcopyofthebook.Youareinforatreat.Evenifyouarefamiliarwith
ECC and eager to immerse yourself into the rigorous micromechanics foundation
(▶Chap. 2) and its links to mechanical properties (▶Chap. 4) or to ascertain the
ECC constitutive modeling (▶Chap. 5) or to learn how to design resilient ECC
structuralmembers(▶Chap.6),Ihighlyrecommendthatyoustartwith▶Chap.1:
itcontainsaverypersonalperspectiveoftheearlydevelopmentsandacompelling
overview of the unique features of ECC compared to normal concrete and other
high-performanceconcretes.
Thecivilinfrastructureinmanydevelopedcountriesisagingfast.Forinstance,in
theUnitedStates,outof614,387bridges,56,007arestructurallydeficient.Society
requiresthatdamagedstructuresberepairedandthatanynewconstructionbelasting
and sustainable. Most of the durability problems in reinforced concrete are associ-
atedwiththepenetrationofaggressiveionsthroughcracksandconnectedporosityin
concrete.BycontrollingthecrackwidthinECCtolessthan0.1mm,thepenetration
anddiffusionofaqueoussolutionscontainingaggressiveions,suchaschloridesand
sulfates,aresignificantlyreduced,thusincreasingthelifecycleofthestructureeven
ifsteelreinforcementisembeddedinthematrix.
▶Chap. 6 presents extensive experimental evidence of the improvement of the
ECCtransportproperties.Consideringthattheworld’syearlycementproductionof
4.2 billion tonnes is responsible for nearly 7% of the total global CO emissions,
2
concretemanufacturingneedstooptimizethecementcontent,increasethemechan-
ical properties, and extend the life cycle of structures. Although some versions of
ECCusemorecementthannormal-strengthconcrete,thisincreasedcarbonfootprint
ismorethanoffsetbythelargeincreaseinthemechanicalbehavioranddurabilityof
v
vi Foreword
the material. Careful life cycle analysis of various scenarios is presented in
▶Chap. 8, which also discusses the promising sustainable options of using green
aggregateandgreenfiber.
Often new construction materials showing exciting laboratory properties do not
scale up into engineering practice. In fiber-reinforced cementitious materials, the
challengeistoguaranteeauniformdispersionofthefibersandanadequaterheology
duringtheprocessingofthematerial.▶Chapter3presentsadetailedpresentationof
ECCpropertiesinthefreshstateandaninsightfuldiscussionontherequirementsfor
self-consolidating casting, shotcreting, and extrusion. After presenting the science
and technology of ECC, the book discusses various applications of the material in
practice (▶Chap. 10) and introduces today’s cutting-edge research, including self-
healing,self-cleaning,andself-sensingECC(▶Chap.11).
In summary, this comprehensive book will be of interest to talented senior
students,graduatestudents,researchers,andprofessionalengineers.Myrecommen-
dation for those who are searching for a book on engineered fiber-reinforced
cementitious materials, including micromechanics, rheology, and structural design,
istosearchnomore.
RoyW.CarlsonDistinguishedProfessor PauloJ.M.Monteiro
DepartmentofCivilandEnvironmental
Engineering,UniversityofCaliforniaat
Berkeley,Berkeley,CA,USA
Preface
Although I have been a faculty member since 1981, first at MIT and then at the
University of Michigan, this is the first book I have written. Writing this book is a
longprocess,involvingmultiplefalsestarts.Itdoeshavethebenefitoftrainingmy
patience.
I feel a certain obligation to write this book on Engineered Cementitious Com-
posites(ECC).Asinventorofthismaterial,IhaveseenthegerminationofECCasan
ideaandtheoreticalconception,itsbirthasamaterial,anditsgrowthintoindustrial
scalestructuralapplications.Sinceitsbeginningwhenthemostrespectableconcrete
technologistswouldonlysmileattheideaoutofpoliteness(imaginetheoxymoron
“bendableconcrete”intheearly1980s)totodaywhenECCisdeployedinthetallest
residentialtowerinJapan, thebodyofknowledge onECChasgrownenormously.
Today, more than 300 research and development groups worldwide are actively
workingonECCanditsapplications.Atnationalandinternationalconferences,Iam
oftenaskedwherearesearchercouldbeststartonthestudyofECC.Irealizedthen
that the large amount of knowledge on ECC is spread out over many different
journals and conference proceedings; a book that provides information on ECC in
acoherentorganizedformatiscalledfor.Thisbookisthereforeforemostwrittenfor
graduate students who want to learn the many interesting aspects of ECC and for
researchers who want to contribute to expanding the maturation of ECC technolo-
gies.Practitionerswillalsofindthisbookhelpfulindesigningstructuresbeyondthe
limitsofnormalconcreteorhigh-strengthconcrete.
ButwhyECCinthefirstplace?Concreteisarguablyoneofthemostimportant
engineeringmaterialsinsupportofmoderncivilizationasweknowit–formingthe
material basis of most of the transportation, building, water, and energyinfrastruc-
ture we take for granted every day. While concrete has evolved since its invention
about 200 years ago,it hasthetechnical bottleneck ofbeing abrittlematerial. The
brittlenessofconcrete,Ibelieve,isafundamentalsourceofdisastersduringnatural
hazards, traffic jams associated with repeated road repairs, and global warming
caused by pollutant emissions in the making of cement. ECC has been conceived
toovercomethesechallengesininfrastructureresilience,durability,andsustainabil-
ity.Asthisbookattemptstodemonstrate,ECCalsoformsanexcellentplatformfor
multifunctionalitythatsupportsthenextgenerationofsmartcivilinfrastructures.
vii
viii Preface
IamoftenaskedthequestionhowIfirstconceivedofECC.Thetruthistheidea
came about out of ignorance. As a young assistant professor fresh out of a PhD
focused on the study of the mechanics of earthquake rupture, I felt I had to learn
something relevant to my students’ interest in a Civil Engineering department. I
noticedatthattimethatanumberofprominentprofessorsweredirectingtheirefforts
inpredictingcrackpathsinconcretestructures.Iwantedtobepartofthiscommunity
and participated enthusiastically in a number of national and international confer-
encesonthissubject,usingmybackgroundinfracturemechanicsthatIlearnedfrom
my eminent mentors, Professor James R. Rice and Professor Benjamin Freund, at
BrownUniversity.However,Isoonfeltdisillusionedbythefactthattheprediction
of crack path would best be satisfying academically but has little impact on the
practicingprofessionofcivilengineering.SinceIneverhadthetextbookknowledge
that concrete cracking is a given, I soon launched a research program on creating
ductileconcrete,usingfracturemechanicsonthemicrostructuralscale.Manywell-
meaningconcretetechnologistsandseniorprofessorswarnedmeofmyfoolishness
in attempting to defeat a fundamental behavior of concrete that is 200 years old.
However, my conviction was strengthened knowing that nature has already made
ductile nacre outofbrittlearagonite.Iamglad that mystubbornnesshad won out;
otherwisethisbookwouldnotexist.
IbeganworkingonthisbookearnestlyaftermyyoungersonAlexwasborn.At
thattime,myfocusonusingECCforinfrastructuresustainabilityenhancementhas
entered into high gear. In retrospect, this is no accident in timing. In many public
presentations,Ihadincludedmyson’sbabypictureinmylastslide,withthewords
“creating harmony between the built and natural environment” splashed across the
screen.Iknowthatmygenerationwillsurvivetheimpactsofclimatechange.Alex’s
generation will literally feel the heat. But I am not so sure how my grandkids will
fare–unlesswedosomethingnow.Thisrecognitionhasbeenabigmotivatorofthe
continuationofthisthrustinECCresearchandalsoservesasacontinuousreminder
thatIneedtocompletethisbook.
IhavethebenefitofservingasPhDadvisortoabout30brilliantgraduatestudents
who have over the years worked on different aspects of ECC. Their amazing
accomplishments are amply incorporated into the different chapters of this book.
Ihavealso greatly benefitedfrom many colleagues who havedirectlyorindirectly
givenmeguidanceinmycareer.Iwanttothankmyformeradvisor,ProfessorJames
R. Rice, at Harvard who invested heavily his time and energy to turn me into a
personofsomeusefulness.ThelateProfessorStanleyBackerofMITintroducedme
to synthetic fibers and was perhaps the only person in my early career who never
doubt my instinct of pursuing ductile concrete. I owe much to Professor Narayan
SwamyofSheffieldUniversity,whoinsistedon“puttingmeonthemap”whenIwas
still a freshly minted PhD, for his confidence in my career path, and to Professor
E.B. Wylie who hired me into the faculty at the University of Michigan and was
never tired of listening to my global adventures in ECC, even after his retirement.
My heartfelt thanks to Professor Herbert Krenchel who saw the promise of ductile
ECCevenbeforeitbecamepopularlyknowntotheresearchcommunity,andinvited
me to collaborate with him at the Technical University of Denmark where I
Preface ix
eventually received an honorary doctoral degree. I am indebted to Professor
Surendra Shah of NorthwesternUniversity who was among the first to suggestthe
value of ECC in enhancing structural durability and encouraged me to pursue
research in that direction. My gratitude extends to Prof. Folker Wittmann, former
president of RILEM, who promoted ECC through the formation of technical com-
mitteesinRILEM.IamalsogratefultoProfessorSunWeiofSoutheastUniversityin
China. She literally opened the door of China to me and to ECC. A number of
chapters were written while I served as a guest professor at Southeast University.
More recently, the Institute for Advanced Study at the Hong Kong University of
Science and Technology provided me an inspiring environment to complete
thebook.
Beyond academia, I am much indebted to my parents and particularly to my
mother, Ms. Yin-Fong Siu, who lived to an old age of 104. While having an
education not much more than elementary school, she insisted on her children
getting a good education despite limited resources in my family. Without my
mom, I would not be writing this book for sure. This book is dedicated to the
memoryofmymom.
Iam also deeply grateful tomywifePatricia.She hasprovidedme awarmand
lovingfamilyenvironmentthatanchorsmywork.MyoldersonDustinhasalways
beenonmysideevenatthemostdifficulttimes.
This book hasgone through multiplerevisions. The various chapters have been
reviewed by many colleagues and former and current students/postdocs. I want to
particularly mention Gregor Fischer, Peter Kabele, Tetsushi Kanda, Taeho Kim,
Christopher Leung, Mo Li, Ravi Ranade, Mustafa Sahmaran, En-Hua Yang, Bao
Yi, Gideon van Zijl, Duo Zhang, and Jian Zhou. Their contributions to getting the
booktothecurrentformcannotbeoverstated.IwanttoparticularlycreditTetsushi
Kanda who after receiving his PhD at the University of Michigan returned to
KajimaCorporationwhere hesucceededinindustrializing ECC inavariety offull
scalebuilding,bridge,andotherinfrastructure.Itisnotpossibletonameallwhohas
contributedtomycareer,ECCdevelopment,andthisbook,butmyindebtednessto
themisdeepinmyheart.
Ihopethisbooklaysaclearpathtocivilinfrastructurethataremoreresilientto
hazards,moredurabletoeverydayuse,andmoreenvironmentallysustainable.The
construction industry evolves slowly. But the need to creating a more harmonious
builtandnaturalenvironmentismoreurgentthanever.
TheJamesR.RiceDistinguishedUniversity VictorC.Li
ProfessorofEngineering,Universityof
Michigan,AnnArbor,MI,USA
Contents
1 IntroductiontoEngineeredCementitiousComposites(ECC) .... 1
1.1 ConcreteTechnologyDevelopment .................... 2
1.2 WhatIsECC? .................................... 4
1.3 IntegratedStructuresandMaterialsDesign(ISMD)for
InfrastructureandEnvironmentalPerformance ............ 5
1.4 OrganizationofThisText ............................ 9
References ............................................ 9
2 MicromechanicsandEngineeredCementitiousComposites
(ECC)DesignBasis ..................................... 11
2.1 Introduction:ECCVersusFRC ........................ 12
2.2 MicrostructuralFeaturesofECC ...................... 14
2.3 MicromechanicalModelofECC ...................... 16
2.3.1 CriteriaforCompositeStrain-Hardening .......... 17
2.3.2 ATheoreticalModelofStressVersus
Crack-OpeningRelationshipσ(δ) ................ 24
2.3.3 ExperimentalMeasurementofStressVersus
Crack-OpeningRelationshipσ(δ) ................ 30
2.3.4 SingleFiberStraightPulloutModelP(δ) .......... 34
2.3.5 AdditionalFiber/MatrixInteractionMechanisms .... 37
2.3.6 LinkingP(δ)toσ(δ)andMicromechanical
Parameters ................................ 40
2.4 ExperimentalDeterminationofMicromechanical
Parameters ....................................... 41
2.4.1 DeterminingFiber/MatrixInterfacialParameters
fromMeasuredP(δ)Relation ................... 42
2.4.2 DeterminationofMatrixParameters .............. 44
2.5 MaterialTailoring .................................. 47
2.5.1 FiberTailoring ............................. 48
2.5.2 InterfaceTailoringbyFiberSurfaceCoating ....... 49
2.5.3 MatrixTailoring ............................ 58
xi
