Table Of ContentEnergy Resources and Systems
Tushar K. Ghosh • Mark A. Prelas
Energy Resources and Systems
Volume 1: Fundamentals and Non-Renewable
Resources
Tushar K. Ghosh Mark A. Prelas
Nuclear Science & Engineering Institute Nuclear Science & Engineering Institute
University of Missouri-Columbia University of Missouri-Columbia
E 2434 Lafferre Hall E 2434 Lafferre Hall
Columbia MO 65211 Columbia MO 65211
USA USA
ISBN: 978-90-481-2382-7 e-ISBN: 978-90-481-2383-4
Library of Congress Control Number: 2009928307
© Springer Science + Business Media B.V. 2009
No part of this work may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any
means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, microfilming, recording or otherwise, without written per-
mission from the Publisher, with the exception of any material supplied specifically forthe purpose of
being entered and executed on a computer system, for exclusive use by the purchaser of the work.
Printed on acid-free paper
9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
springer.com
Dedication
This book is dedicated to Alexander Prelas, a young man who in his fight for life
has shown great courage and determination. Our hope is that Alex’s generation
will show the same courage and determination in solving the energy crisis.
This book is also dedicated to our kids who will be challenged more than any
other previous generations to find stable and affordable energy resources without
harming the mother earth.
PREFACE
In the lifetimes of the authors, the world and especially the United States have
received three significant “wake-up calls” on energy production and consumption.
The first of these occurred on October 15, 1973 when the Yom Kippur War began
with an attack by Syria and Egypt on Israel. The United States and many western
countries supported Israel. Because of the western support of Israel, several Arab
oil exporting nations imposed an oil embargo on the west. These nations withheld
five million barrels of oil per day. Other countries made up about one million
barrels of oil per day but the net loss of four million barrels of oil production per
day extended through March of 1974. This represented 7% of the free world’s
(i.e., excluding the USSR) oil production. In 1972 the price of crude oil was about
$3.00 per barrel and by the end of 1974 the price of oil had risen by a factor of 4
to over $12.00. This resulted in one of the worst recessions in the post World War
II era. As a result, there was a movement in the United States to become energy
independent. At that time the United States imported about one third of its oil
(about five million barrels per day). After the embargo was lifted, the world chose
to ignore the “wake-up call” and went on with business as usual.
The second “wake-up call” occurred on November 4, 1979 when the new
government of Iran allowed “students” to take United States embassy employees
hostage. At that point in time the United States was importing about 41% of its oil
(about seven million barrels per day). During the 444 day crisis United States oil
imports dropped to about four million barrels per day and the world had another
tailspin into a deep recession. Oil prices went from $14 per barrel to $35 per barrel
in 1981. There was a great deal of discussion about energy independence but when
the hostage crisis abated, the world chose to go back to business as usual.
By the time of the First Gulf War which began on August 2, 1990 with Iraq’s
invasion of Kuwait, the United States was importing about seven million barrels
of oil per day or about 42% of its oil. By the Second Gulf War, March 20, 2003,
the United States was importing about 9.6 million barrels of oil (about 63% of its
usage). Neither war stirred the embers of a significant energy independence
movement because oil was still relatively cheap (under $30 per barrel in 2003).
The third “wake-up call” began in 2004 when the price of oil first rose to over
$40 per barrel, then $50 and finally by August of 2005 it hit $60. In mid-2006 it
hit a high of $75 per barrel but dropped back by the end of the year to $60. In
2007 prices continued to rise and hit $92 per barrel by October and $99 by
December. In February 2008, it hit $103 per barrel and then by July hit an all time
vii
viii Preface
high of $147.02. The price of oil was finally tempered by a financial collapse in
the fall of 2008 when it dropped below $40 per barrel by the end of the year. No
one should take comfort. It took a financial collapse of the magnitude of the great
depression of the 1930s to bring oil prices down. Oil prices will rise as economic
activity picks up again. The question is, which countries will take this respite to
invest in the energy infrastructure required to give them a competitive edge after
the inevitable recovery.
The authors began working on this project in 1996 while revamping the cur-
riculum for a course titled Energy Systems and Resources. This course was started
by the late Prof. Walt Meyer in the 1970s after the oil embargo crisis. The course
adopted the book Learning about Energy by David J. Rose in 1986. What became
clear to us early on in the project was that in the 10 years since the publication of
Rose’s book a great deal had changed. Additionally, we decided that the course
needed to encompass the depth and breadth of energy resources and the depth and
breadth of the links between energy resources to social structure, environment,
economy, food, medicine, health, terrorism, war and a host of other global human
interactions. To tackle the problem of presenting these complex interactions in the
course and eventually as a text, we began by closely examining every potential
energy resource and began looking at systems that could be used to glean useful
energy from the resource and the broader implications of these systems to the
human condition.
This is the first volume of a three volume series. In this volume, Basics and
Nonrenewable Sources, the focus is on the basic tools required to understand the
complex interactions of energy and society (economy, population, finance, etc.),
fundamentals (thermodynamics, heat transfer, etc.) as well as nonrenewable energy
sources (coal, oil, natural gas and nuclear).
The second volume, Renewable and Other Potential Sources, discusses wind,
solar, hydropower, geothermal, ocean, biomass, ethanol, fusion, space based power
systems, hydrogen, advanced systems and fuel cells.
The third volume, Environmental Effects, Remediation, and Policies, looks at
the impact of energy on the environment (e.g., acid rain, ozone depletion, global
warming, emissions, pollution, etc.), green technologies (e.g., conservation, hybrid
cars, electric vehicles, hydrogen economy, distribution systems etc.), policies
(e.g., deregulation) and future trends.
This is perhaps the most opportunistic time in history to seriously address the
world’s energy problems. The lessons learned from 2004 to 2008 and the rise and
fall of oil prices are that over dependence on a single energy resource is a recipe
for disaster. Albeit, oil is unique in that it is a high energy density liquid fuel which
is highly portable. It has fueled the economic development of the world from the
great depression to the present and it permeates our lives in numerous ways (food
production, chemicals, pharmaceuticals, transportation, world wide travel and
freedom). It has made the United States the envy of the world and a role model for
economic development. It has fueled the economic growth of South East Asia and
has been the ambassador of globalization. It has been a source of greed, envy and
Preface ix
conflict. It is a finite resource and even though there is money to be made in
exploiting it until it runs dry, there is no wisdom to succumbing to greed. Oil’s
main benefit to mankind is that it is a treasure trove of complex organic molecules
that should be used to produce critical chemicals and pharmaceuticals for
generations to come. Yet, oil’s main use today is in transportation where it is
burned causing global warming and climate change.
Be optimistic in the fact that there are solutions to the energy independence
problem. The solutions are not easy and will take leadership, vision and time to
implement. There are technologies that can address one of the most significant
issues on the table-the replacement of petroleum based transportation. There are
technologies which change the way petroleum is used such as hybrid vehicles and
plug in hybrid vehicles. There are technologies which eliminate petroleum such as
the fuel cells, the electric vehicle, compressed air vehicles and fly wheel powered
vehicles. Many of these concepts depend on enhancement of electrical generation
resources. Political decisions will soon be made that will shape the future of
countries, the world and world order. It is a mistake to think that any one single
energy resources (e.g., wind or solar) or any group of energy resources (such as
renewable) will lead to a stable solution to the world’s energy problems. If the
need for diversity in energy resources has not yet been recognized by our leaders
after the near disasters caused by oil price volatility, than prepare for the worst
because society will be doomed to make the same mistakes over and over again. It
is important to be realistic- renewable energy resources are an important part of
the solution but not the whole solution. The solution will also require a mix of
nuclear energy, oil, natural gas and coal.
Do not forget that global climate change may cause drastic shifts in the weather
patterns of regions where at present wind or solar are economical. Twenty or 30
years from now these regions might not be very economical for wind or solar
energy. Having a stable electrical power base load to counter the whims of
weather is a critical part of the solution to the energy problem.
This is an exciting time and a time where clear thinking and vision will
determine winners and losers in the twenty-first century. We can only hope that
our leaders show the wisdom that comes from lessons learned from the past and
that they will not pander to special interests.
Tushar K. Ghosh
and
Mark A. Prelas
CONTENTS
1 INTRODUCTION..............................................................................................1
1.1 Energy Sources.............................................................................................1
1.2 Energy and Economy....................................................................................3
1.2.1 How Energy Price Shocks Affect the Economy.................................4
1.2.2 Energy Dollar......................................................................................8
1.3 Energy and Population..................................................................................9
1.4 Energy and Environment............................................................................20
1.5 Energy and Food Price...............................................................................21
References..........................................................................................................21
Problems.............................................................................................................22
2 ENGINEERING ECONOMICS.....................................................................23
2.1 Introduction................................................................................................23
2.2 Cash Flow Diagrams..................................................................................25
2.3 Types of Cash Flow....................................................................................27
2.4 Simple and Compound Interest..................................................................30
2.5 Equivalence................................................................................................30
2.5.1 Economic Equivalence.....................................................................30
2.5.2 Single Payment Equivalence............................................................32
2.6 Minimum Attractive Rate of Return...........................................................33
2.7 Various Algebraic Expressions or Formulas..............................................33
2.8 Use of Formula for Cash Flow Calculation................................................36
2.8.1 Gradient Cash Flow..........................................................................36
2.8.2 Stepped Cash Flow...........................................................................37
2.8.3 Delayed and Premature Cash Flow..................................................39
2.8.4 Use of Superposition Method for Cash Flow...................................40
2.9 Uniform Series Factors...............................................................................42
2.10 Gradient Series Cash Flow Factor............................................................43
2.11 Sinking Fund.............................................................................................44
2.12 Annuity (Present Worth Factor)...............................................................45
2.13 Determination of Various Factors for Economic Evaluation of a Project..46
2.13.1 Equivalent Uniform Annual Cost (EUAC)...................................46
2.13.2 Finding a Past Value.....................................................................47
2.14 Doubling Time..........................................................................................48
2.14.1 Calculation of Doubling Time......................................................49
xi
xii Contents
2.15 Tripling Time............................................................................................50
2.16 Rate of Return (ROR)...............................................................................50
2.17 Rate on Investment (ROI).........................................................................52
2.18 Characteristics of Engineering Economy Problems.................................52
2.18.1 Present Worth Method..................................................................53
2.18.2 Capitalization Cost Method..........................................................53
2.18.3 Annual Cost Method.....................................................................54
2.19 Life Cycle Cost Analysis..........................................................................55
2.19.1 Present Worth Method..................................................................55
2.19.2 Equivalent Uniform Annual Cost.................................................55
2.20 Benefit–Cost Ratio Analysis.....................................................................56
2.21 Economic Life...........................................................................................58
2.22 Depreciation..............................................................................................61
2.23 Methods for Calculating Depreciation......................................................62
2.23.1 Straight Line Method....................................................................62
2.23.2 Sum-Of-the-Years-Digits (SOYD) Method.................................63
2.23.3 Double Declining Balance (DDB)................................................63
2.24 Sinking Fund Method...............................................................................65
2.25 Finding Book Value..................................................................................67
2.26 Amortization.............................................................................................69
2.27 Depletion...................................................................................................69
2.28 Income Tax...............................................................................................69
2.29 Depreciation Recovery..............................................................................71
2.29.1 Straight Line Depreciation Rate...................................................72
2.29.2 Sum of the Year’s Digits Depreciation Rate................................72
2.29.3 Double Declining Balance............................................................72
References..........................................................................................................73
Problems.............................................................................................................74
3 UNITS AND UNIT CONVERSIONS............................................................77
3.1 Introduction................................................................................................77
3.2 Basic Energy Units.....................................................................................79
3.2.1 Other Energy Units...........................................................................80
3.3 Energy Content...........................................................................................81
3.4 Power..........................................................................................................84
References..........................................................................................................87
Problems.............................................................................................................87
4 THERMODYNAMIC CYCLES....................................................................89
4.1 Introduction................................................................................................89
4.2 Carnot Cycle...............................................................................................90
4.2.1 Efficiency of Carnot Engine.............................................................91
4.3 Brayton Cycle.............................................................................................93
4.4 The Otto Cycle............................................................................................98
Contents xiii
4.5 Diesel Cycle..............................................................................................102
4.6 The Dual Cycle.........................................................................................106
4.7 Rankine Cycle...........................................................................................107
4.7.1 Rankine Cycle With Reheat............................................................109
4.7.2 Regenerative Rankine Cycle...........................................................111
4.8 Supercritical Rankine Cycle.....................................................................113
4.9 Combined Reheat and Regenerative Rankine Cycle................................114
4.10 Combined Cycles in Stationary Gas Turbine for Power Production........117
4.11 Stirling Cycle..........................................................................................123
4.11.1 Efficiency of the Stirling Cycle..................................................124
4.12 Ericssion Cycle.......................................................................................125
4.13 Miller Cycle............................................................................................126
4.14 Atkinson Cycle........................................................................................127
4.15 Kalina Cycle............................................................................................128
References........................................................................................................130
Problems...........................................................................................................138
5 FUNDAMENTALS OF HEAT TRANSFER..............................................141
5.1 Introduction..............................................................................................141
5.2 Thermal Conduction.................................................................................141
5.3 Modeling of Heat Transfer by Conduction..............................................144
5.4 Convective Heat Transfer.........................................................................148
5.5 Radiative Heat Transfer............................................................................149
5.6 Thermal Resistance...................................................................................151
5.7 R Values...................................................................................................154
References........................................................................................................155
Problems...........................................................................................................156
6 COAL..............................................................................................................159
6.1 Introduction..............................................................................................159
6.2 Origin of Coal...........................................................................................164
6.3 Classification............................................................................................167
6.4 Coal Properties and Structure...................................................................173
6.5 Coal Structure...........................................................................................176
6.6 Coal Mining..............................................................................................179
6.6.1 Surface Mining...............................................................................179
6.6.2 Underground Mining......................................................................180
6.6.2.1 Room and Pillar Mining....................................................181
6.6.2.2 Longwall Mining...............................................................181
6.7 Cost of Coal and Its Mining.....................................................................182
6.8 Transportation of Coal..............................................................................185
6.9 Coal Cleaning...........................................................................................186
6.10 The Use of Coal......................................................................................190
6.10.1 Electricity Production from Coal................................................190
