Table Of ContentEnergy and Motorization in the
Automotive and Aeronautics Industries
Energy and Motorization in
the Automotive and
Aeronautics Industries
Tomasz Krysinski
François Malburet
First published 2020 in Great Britain and the United States by ISTE Ltd and John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Apart from any fair dealing for the purposes of research or private study, or criticism or review, as
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ISTE Ltd John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
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© ISTE Ltd 2020
The rights of Tomasz Krysinski and François Malburet to be identified as the authors of this work have
been asserted by them in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.
Library of Congress Control Number: 2020935303
British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data
A CIP record for this book is available from the British Library
ISBN 978-1-78630-572-5
Contents
Foreword . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ix
Preface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xi
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xv
Chapter 1. Motorization and Reflection on Ideal Engines . . . . . . . 1
1.1. Motorization for an aircraft . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1.1. Helicopters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1.2. Aircraft . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
1.1.3. Compound formulas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
1.2. Motorization for an automobile . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
1.2.1. Determining tractive force and useful power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
1.2.2. Definition of ideal transportation powertrain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
1.3. Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
Chapter 2. Engine Technologies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
2.1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
2.2. Gas turbines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
2.2.1. General operating principles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
2.2.2. Improvement of gas turbines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
2.3. Electric motors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
2.3.1. Introduction to electric motors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
2.3.2. Use of electric motors and mission profile . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
2.3.3. Electric motor technologies for propulsion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
2.3.4. Examples of specific propulsion systems and applications . . . . . 105
vi Energy and Motorization in the Automotive and Aeronautics Industries
2.4. Internal combustion engine pistons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
2.4.1. Theoretical thermodynamic cycles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
2.4.2. Real cycles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
2.5. Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
Chapter 3. Power Transmission Elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
3.1. Transmission system for rotating wings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
3.1.1. Conventional helicopters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
3.1.2. The case of multi-rotor structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
3.2. Transmission system for aircraft . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
3.2.1. Propeller aircraft cases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
3.2.2. Turbojet aircraft . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
3.3. Transmission system for the automotive industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
3.3.1. Gasoline or diesel internal combustion engines . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
3.3.2. The case of electric motors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
3.4. Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168
Chapter 4. Energy Storage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
4.1. Classification of energy sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
4.1.1. Primary energy sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
4.1.2. Energy carrier concept . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
4.1.3. Use of different energy sources in automotive
and aeronautical transport . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
4.2. Energy storage for transport . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
4.2.1. Different forms of energy storage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
4.2.2. Different energy storage technologies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
4.3. Forms of hydrogen storage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186
4.3.1. Storage in gaseous form . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
4.3.2. Storage in liquid form . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188
4.3.3. Storage in solid form . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
4.3.4. Comparison of diesel fuel tanks and automotive batteries . . . . . . 213
4.4. Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217
Chapter 5. Hybridization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219
5.1. Hybridization of electric motors: range extender . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221
5.1.1. Application examples for the automotive industry . . . . . . . . . . 222
5.1.2. Application examples for aeronautics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229
5.2. Hybridization of combustion engines: improving energy efficiency . . 232
Contents vii
5.2.1. Interest in parallel hybridization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232
5.2.2. Classification of electrical hybridization: the case
of the automobile . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234
5.2.3. Implementation of hybridization in the case of the automobile . . . 255
5.3. Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265
Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269
Foreword
The future of the planet cannot leave anyone feeling indifferent. Environmental
problems and more particularly those related to global warming concern us all and
require general mobilization. Industries must be particularly active in reducing their
greenhouse gas emissions and finding innovative solutions that will enable
sustainable, environmentally friendly growth.
The automotive and aeronautics industries have become fully aware of these
challenges. Modern vehicles have already made a lot of progress in reducing fuel
consumption. The new CAFE (Corporate Average Fuel Efficiency) regulation sets
extremely ambitious emission reduction targets for car manufacturers, combined
with possible financial sanctions. For aviation, States have made commitments to
the ICAO (International Civil Aviation Organization) to stabilize emissions from the
sector from 2020 onwards and to even go beyond within the framework of the Paris
Agreement, with the objective of reducing CO emissions by half by 2050.
2
Manufacturers today view these topics as an exceptional opportunity to offer
innovative technologies, both in terms of vehicle structure and propulsion systems.
All potential new energy sources are being explored: biofuels or synthetic fuels,
electric or hybrid engines, hydrogen engines, etc.
At least three major challenges must be met in this research for both the
automotive and aeronautics worlds: optimizing propulsion efficiency – including
engine technology and thrust or traction generation – weight reduction and reduction
of forward resistance, both in terms of aerodynamic drag and ground friction.
Throughout the 20th Century, both the automotive and aeronautics industries
inspired each other in terms of components and materials as well as means of
production. The same type of internal combustion engine, with pistons, has been
x Energy and Motorization in the Automotive and Aeronautics Industries
used in particular in automotive and aeronautical applications for certain small
aircraft. Autopilot was first introduced in the aeronautics field and its gradual
integration into modern cars with new autonomous driving functions can now be
observed. Another example of a similarity between the two industries is the
increasing use of composite materials.
This book provides a detailed comparison of energy challenges, with a particular
focus on the issue of energy storage – whether it is electric energy or hydrogen –
which is one of the main issues for both industries to date.
It shows the major challenge of achieving zero emission cars, helicopters and
aircraft. It also allows us to hope that these extremely innovative industries will
master the necessary technologies and mutually enrich each other with the
experiences and progress made by each other to achieve this goal, thus awakening
the minds of the pioneers who have always been able to meet the challenges facing
them and enabling these two modes of transport – both of which are definitely part
of our modern lives – to build a future for themselves, for future generations, while
respecting the planet and its environment.
Guillaume FAURY
CEO of Airbus
Preface
“Never believe in any theory until it’s confirmed by experimentation
in various conditions and scales.”
Prof. Alexander A. Nikolsky,
Department of Aeronautical Engineering,
Princeton University
The transport sector represents a significant part of the world’s energy
consumption. The technologies used have an impact on the depletion of non-
renewable resources and on the environment, whether it is the air quality (CO , fine
2
particles, NO , etc.) or noise pollution.
x
Beyond organizational and behavioral solutions, the improvement of existing
technologies or the development of new technologies is a major challenge for the
coming years. After decades of almost exclusive use of fossil energy, the need for
energy transition has been recognized. Several solutions, not necessarily new ones,
are being developed or considered for the automotive and aeronautics industries: this
is the case for electric or hydrogen solutions. It appears that no single solution is
likely to offer sufficient potential in the short or medium term to address both the
problem of energy transition and sustainable development as well as the issue of
mobility, a major challenge for the development of tomorrow’s society (social,
economic). It must be considered that each solution will have to be used in the
coming decades in a complementary way.
In the above context and on the basis of their professional experience and
culture, the authors decided to write this book on energy and the engine power of
transport systems in the automotive and aeronautics sector by linking science and
technology in an industrial context.
xii Energy and Motorization in the Automotive and Aeronautics Industries
This book is intended for students of engineering schools, students in mechanical
faculties, young engineers involved in companies in the automotive or aeronautics
sector and people wishing to have a more global vision on the subject.
A large number of books have been written on the field of energy, each in its
own specific field. Similarly, there is a number of structures dedicated to the
automotive and aeronautics industries. The authors wanted to write a book that
would put the automotive and aeronautics industries into perspective, the needs of
which are sometimes similar and sometimes opposite, and whose technical solutions
may be similar, even common or, on the contrary, very different. The objective was
to present the entire propulsion chain from the product’s energy requirement to
energy storage by integrating the engine(s) and power transmission elements.
This book was written with the aim of transmitting a technical culture and
know-how in order to support future generations in the development of future
solutions. It is the result of a long collaboration between industry and university.
Introduction. This introductory chapter first describes a historical overview of
the main technological leaps in the energy field that have made it possible to
develop the automobile, the aircraft and the helicopter in recent decades. This
overview makes it possible to suggest that – in the coming years – similar
transformations such as electrification or the development of urban mobility will
represent new challenges facing manufacturers in the aeronautics or automotive
sectors. A second part, through a functional approach, introduces Breguet-Leduc’s
formulation which at first glance links the characteristics of the structure
(aerodynamics and mass) and propulsion energy (electric or fossil fuel) to the
distance that can be travelled by the product (a plane, a helicopter or, by extension, a
car). This Introduction provides an initial reflection on the product’s structure in
terms of its energy consumption as well as on the productivity of the product
according to its use.
Chapter 1: Motorization and Reflection on Ideal Engines. This chapter
summarizes the methods for obtaining the order of magnitude of the engine power
associated with the product and its mission. The first part presents Froude’s theory,
necessary for sizing useful hover power of rotary wings, and then justifies the
development of useful forward power in flight. The second part details the case of
the aircraft by distinguishing the power required for take-off and then for forward
flight. The third part introduces the case of the car. This chapter defines an ideal type
of engine to meet each product’s power requirements.
Chapter 2: Engine Technologies. As a logical follow-up to the previous
chapter, this chapter aims to describe different engine technologies used in
aeronautics or automotive applications. The first part describes the operating
