Table Of ContentEDITORIAL BOARD
Editors in Chief
Lawrence H. Schiffman
Ethel and Irvin A. Edelman Professor of Hebrew and Judaic Studies,
New York University
J a m e s C. V a n d e r K a m
John A. O'Brien Professor of Theology,
University of Notre Dame, Indiana
Editors
George J. Brooke
Rylands Professor of Bibhcal Criticism and Exegesis,
University of Manchester, United Kingdom
J o h n J. Collins
Professor of Hebrew Bible and Post-Bibhcal Judaism,
University of Chicago, Illinois
Florent ino Garcia Mart inez
Professor of Jewish Literature of the Second Temple Period,
University of Groningen, The Netherlands
Eileen Schuler
Professor of Religious Studies,
McMaster University, Hamilton, Canada
E m a n u e l Tov
J. L. Magnes Professor of Bible,
The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Israel
E u g e n e Ulrich
John A. O'Brien Professor of Hebrew Scriptures,
University of Notre Dame, Indiana
Consultant
E p h r a i m S t e m
Rev. Moses Bernard Lauterman Family Professor of Palestinian Archaeology,
The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Mount Scopus, Israel
Advisers
Joseph A. Fi tzmyer, SJ.
Professor Emeritus of Biblical Studies,
The Catholic University of America, Washington, D.C.
Jonas C. Greenfield (Deceased)
Caspar Levias Professor of Ancient Semitic Languages,
The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Mount Scopus, Israel
Emi le Puech
Professor of West Semitic Epigraphy and Dead Sea Scrolls,
ficole Biblique et Archeologique Fran^aise de Jerusalem, Israel;
and Research Director, Centre Natiooale de la Recherche Scientifique, Paris, France
H a r t m u t S t e g e m a n n
Professor of New Testament Studies and Director of the Institute for Ancient Judaism,
University of Gottingen, Germany
E N C Y C L O P E D I A
OF T H E
D E A D S E A S C R O L L S
Lawrence H. Schiffman
James C. VanderKam
E D I T O R S I N C H I E F
V O L U M E 1
OXFORD
UNIVERSITY PRESS
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Copyright © 2000 by Oxford University Press
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Encyclopedia of the Dead Sea scrolls /
Lawrence H. Schiffman and James C- VanderKam, editors in chief
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
I. Dead Sea scrolls—Encyclopedias-
1. Schiffman, Lawrence H. D. VanderKam, James C.
BM487.E53 2000
296.l'55'03—dc21 99-055300
ISBN 0-19-508450-0 (set)
ISBN 0-19-513796-5 (vol. 1)
ISBN 0-19-513797-3 (vol. 2)
Publisher. Karen Casey
Commissioning Editor: Claude Conyers
Development Editor: Marion Osmun
Managing Editor: Matthew Giarratano
Project Editor. Kathy Moreau
Production Manager: Nancy Hoagland
Production Editor. Cynthia Carver
Indexer: Catherine Cod dard
Book Designer Joan Creenfield
1 3 5 7 9 8 6 4 2
Printed in the United States of America
on acid-free paper
Contents
Preface vii
E N C Y C L O P E D I A O F T H E D E A D S E A S C R O L L S
Volume I: A-M 3
Volume 2: N-Z 595
Provisional List of Documents fiom the Jadean Desert I 0 l 3
Index of Document Names to Document Numbers 1051
Directory of Contributors 1057
Synoptic Outline of Contents 1067
Index 1073
Preface
The fifty years since the discovery of the Dead Sea Scrolls have seen an immense
development in our understanding of biblical studies, the history of Judaism,
and the rise of Christianity—the result of what has been called by many the
most important archaeological discovery of the century. Recent years have seen
an intensification of research and publication relating to the scrolls. The purpose
of the Encyclopedia of the Dead Sea Scrolls is to present to scholars and interested
lay people the results of this half century of research and to reveal to them this
trove of information that highlights a period in the history of our civilization
the importance of which cannot be overstated. The documents discussed in this
encyclopedia, as well as the historical sites and circumstances, were formative
in shaping the Western religious tradition as we know it. It is therefore no acci-
dent that these scrolls have engendered such great enthusiasm on the one hand
and much controversy on the other. The encyclopedia aims td provide an up-to-
date account of all aspects of these important finds.
As understood in this encyclopedia, the Dead Sea Scrolls are a set of collec-
tions of texts found in the Judean Wilderness, an area east and south of Jerusa-
em and west of the Dead Sea. Although the term Dead Sea Scrolls is usually
used to designate only the texts found in the eleven caves of Oumran, this ency-
clopedia also includes the texts found in Wadi ed-Daliyeh, Wadi Murabba'at ,
Nahal Hever and related sites, Masada. and Khirbet Mird. Taken together, schol-
ars usually designate these collections as the Judean Desert texts. These materi-
als range in date from the fourth century BCE to the seventh century CE. While
these collections are often described using the terms scrolls, texts, or documents,
most of the parchment and papyrus scraps are bu t fragmentary representations
of what once constituted complete scrolls. Those few scrolls that survive in ful -
length copies are often missing sections or break off at certain points. The recon-
struction of the original texts is one of the most difficult tasks for scholars and
has been compared to assembling a jigsaw puzzle with most of the pieces miss-
ing. Nevertheless, through reconstruction and interpretation, the Dead Sea
Scrolls provide textual evidence for a variety of topics, including the history of
the text of the Hebrew Bible, background for the New Testament and early
Christianity, and evidence for the development of Second Temple and Rabbinic
Judaism.
Although research began on the scrolls shortly after their discovery in the late
1940s and 1950s with the intent of publishing all the texts, scholarship slowed
in the 1960s and was revived only in the 1980s. At that time, there were protests
about the paucity of texts that were available for study. Those that had not been
published remained in the possession of the editors, who at times denied other
researchers access to them. The decade of the 1990s opened with the "liberation"
of the scrolls and continued by making all the texts available to the public in
Vll
Vlll P R E F A C E
several formats. This encyclopedia could not have been conceived until this de-
velopment in the history of scrolls scholarship had taken place. At the end of the
1990s, it is particularly appropriate to encapsulate this new knowledge in an
encyclopedia written by experts, each of whose field of study now has been
greatlv enhanced by access to these materials. Even as this encyclopedia goes to
press, editions and translations of the remaining unpublished texts are in prog-
ress in the Oxford University Press series Discoveries in the Judaean Desert.
To be sure, the centerpiece of this encyclopedia is the Oumran scrolls. These
scrolls, along with the other documents, illuminate the several centuries pre-
ceeding Jesus' life and extending until shortly after his death, a very significant
period for understanding the history of both Judaism and Christianity. During
this era, Judaism consisted of a varied group of sects and movements that rivaled
one another for supremacy. Echoes of these can be found in the Oumran texts,
which shed light on the Essenes, Pharisees, Sadducees, Boethusians, and other
Second Temple groups. This was the period of the rise of Talmudic Judaism.
Further, these texts reverberate in the literature of the Karaites, Talmudic rab-
>is, and early Christians through their exposition and interpretations of Jewish
law, their polemic against other groups, and their own theological and ritua
construction of Judaism. The Dead Sea Scrolls are a unique record of this pe-
riod, for they constitute the only contemporary manuscripts of these centuries
outside the Bible itself and some passing references in the works of the first-
century Jewish historian Josephus. In past research, Josephus was the key to
understanding the events of the period. Now, with the eight hundred fifty or so
documents found in the caves of Oumran as primary material, the previously
available sources must be reinterpreted in light of the scrolls.
The Collections
Since the discovery of the first scrolls in 1947 at Oumran, a variety of collections
from different sites in the Judean Desert have been found, sold, and published.
For the most part, these collections have been studied separately in secondary
scholarly literature. They are included together in this encyclopedia for a num-
ber of reasons. First, they all share a similar history of discovery, publication,
and research. Second, they often throw light on one another when studied to-
gether. Third, the history and archaeology of the region in which they have been
discovered are shared ones. Thus, these several collections together are the basis
of this encyclopedia. At the same time, the quantitative size of the Oumran co -
lection, the important research that has been done on it, and its overarching
significance in historical terms have led us to give greater emphasis to it. Never-
theless, we do not wish to diminish the significance of the other material.
The Collections included in this encyclopedia are as follows.
Qumran Scrolls
The most extensive collection is that of Oumran on the western shore of the
Dead Sea. Here, in caves associated with the ruins of a nearby settlement, from
1947 on, remnants of more than eight hundred texts have been unearthed, for
the most part by bedouin. These texts had been brought to the settlement or
copied at Oumran between the third century BCE and the first century CE.
The texts may be divided almost equally into three divisions by their contents:
biblical books, other books read at the time throughout the Land of Israel, and
sectarian writings describing the beliefs and religious practices of the people who
P R E F A C E IX
authored them. While this sect has been identified with many previously known
groups, it is certain that it was a Jewish sect with a rather strict construction of
Jewish law, a strong messianic belief, and a cohesive communal organization.
Most scholars have identified this sect with the Essenes, and some recent scholar-
ship has pointed to relations of the group with the Sadducean priestly sect.
The excavation of the site of Otmiran has yielded a building complex that
virtually all archaeologists agree served the communi ty that collected the scrolls
and hid them in the caves. This site was occupied from sometime after 134 BCE
through 68 CE and includes a complex water system that fed a variety of installa-
tions, including ritual baths, as well as rooms for public assembly and dining.
Most scholars therefore judged these facilities to have served a group such as
that described in the sectarian scrolls found in the nearby caves.
Samaria Papyri
In 1962, bedouin located two caves at Wadi ed-Daliyeh, northeast of Jericho,
that yielded Samarian legal papyri from the fourth century BCE, clay bullae,
coins, and signet rings. Roman coins of the early second century CE and later
remains from the Arabic and Mameluke periods were also located. The Samaria
Papyri, as the documents from this site have been termed, testify to the legal
usages and state of the Aramaic language in the fourth century BCE. Further,
these texts have helped reconstruct the history of Samaria in the Persian period.
Bar Kokhba Texts
Beginning in 1951 bedouin unearthed texts and ostraca from caves located along
the shore of the Dead Sea at Murabba'at, south of Oumran and north of Masada,
ranging from the Iron Age to the Byzantine period and including texts written
in Hebrew, Aramaic, Nabatean, Greek, Latin, and Arabic. The most important
finds were the so-called Bar Kokhba texts, which were brought to the caves by
Jewish refugees during the Bar Kokhba Revolt of 132-135 CE. Among them were
Jewish, Greek, and Nabatean legal documents. In addition, some ostraca and
coins were found. The scroll of the Twelve Minor Prophets found there is ex-
tremely significant.
The Israel Department of Antiquities undertook a survey of the caves of Nahal
Hever, between Wadi Murabba'at and Masada, in 1953. In addition to Chalco-
lithic potsherds, many remnants of everyday life in the Roman period were un-
covered—clothing, shoes, vessels, textiles, knives and other utensils, baskets,
keys, bullae, coins, and skulls. Additional documents from the Bar Kokhba pe-
riod were also found. Legal documents in the possession of a woman named
Babatha were written in Nabatean, Aramaic, and Greek. Hebrew land contracts
from 'Ein Gedi were another important find, and personal letters from none
other than the leader of the revoh of 132-135 CE, Bar Kokhba himself, were
found addressed to members of his administration. Another cave, excavated in
1955, and known as the Cave of Horror, contained numerous skeletons of
women and children, everyday utensils, and remains of foodstuffs. A further ex-
cavation of this cave in 1961 located fragments of a scroll of the Greek text of
the Twelve Prophets. Those texts listed as coming from Nahal Se*elim actually
derive from Nahal IJever. Taken together, this collection of texts gives us a valu-
able window on life in Judea and the Roman province of Arabia in the second
century CE, as well as illuminating the history of Jewish law and the state of the
Greek, Hebrew, and Aramaic languages in use at the time.
X P R E F A C E
Masada
In 1955 and 1956, excavations were carried out al Masada by the Hebrew Uni-
versity, the Israel Exploration Society, and the Israel Department of Antiquities.
Here were found extensive architectural remains from the Chalcolithic period,
the Iron Age, and the time of Herod the Great. The most dramatic evidence
concerns the destruction of the site in 73 CE and includes the Roman siege works
surrounding the plateau. The site also yielded finds indicative of its occupation
>y a Roman garrison after 73 and a later Byzantine church. In addition to the
remains of the Jewish occupiers of the palace during the revolt against Rome
(66-73 CE), including several biblical and a variety of apocryphal-type texts on
parchment, there were many coins, more than seven hundred ostraca, and more
than twenty documents on papyrus. The Hebrew and Aramaic texts, though few
in number, include some of the same texts found at Oumran. This collection
contributes to an understanding of the history of the biblical text and to the
nature of the groups that revolted against Rome in 66-73 CE.
Khirbet Mird
Khirbet Mird, also called Horqaniah, yielded forty Greek and ten Christian Pal-
estinian Aramaic documents , as well as more than one hundred fifty Arabic pa-
pyri from the Byzantine period. These texts were found by bedouin in the ruins
of a Byzantine monastery in 1952. This last collection has been given the least
attention but is of great importance. It testifies to the religious situation in the
ast years of Byzantine Palestine. Further, biblical fragments in this collection
are valuable witnesses to the Aramaic biblical texts of the time and the state of
the Greek Bible. The Arabic papyri also contain much interesting information
for social historians.
The PuqDose and Design of the Encyclopedia of the
Dead Sea Scrolls
This work aims to encompass all scholarship on the scrolls to date, making use
of the research of many scholars of international reputation. It includes the de-
tails of the discovery of the scrolls, a review of the archaeological context in
which the scrolls were found, descriptions of the various fragments and scrolls,
and a discussion of their contents. The written material and artifacts from each
site, the history of the site, and the more general historical context of the texts
and other finds are the subjects of the articles. Each article stresses the relevance
of the corpus to biblical scholarship, its wider historical significance, and, in the
case of the Oumran texts, how it contributes to the reconstruction of the Oum-
ran communi ty through an understanding of sectarian rulings, prayer, and ritu-
als. Discussions emphasize the later impact of the material on Judaism, Chris-
tianity, and other related groups. The various articles constitute a reference work
that unites the fields of historical geography, archaeology, paleography, biblica
studies, history, law, theology, and religious studies.
While there is a vast and ever-growing literature on the sites in the Judean
Desert and the material discovered there, the Encyclopedia of the Dead Sea
Scrolls is the first and only reference work that brings all the information to-
gether in one place. It goes far beyond the various extant introductions to the
scrolls in two significant ways. First, it provides much more detailed information
and greater background material; second, it encompasses all the collections of
Judean Desert texts, not just the Oumran scrolls.
P R E F A C E X I
Studies of these sites, or at least some of them, are often included in other
reference works, the principal concern of which is the Bible or ancient Near
Eastern archeology. While our sites are only a minor set of topics in such works
and serve as background material in them, they are the primary focus of the
Encyclopedia of the Dead Sea Scrolls. Consequently, the content and design of the
encyclopedia are not driven by the concerns that govern, sa>, an encyclopedia o"
the Bible. The material from each of our sites is the heart and soul of what is
presented here and what gives structure to the work as a whole. Many biblical
and Bible-related topics fall within the purview of the encyclopedia and are
treated here, but they are included only when they are relevant to the discoveries
in the Judean Desert.
In planning the work, the editors attempted to organize the large amount of
information available about the sites and to do so with the aim of making the
contents of the encyclopedia accessible to a wide audience. The authors of the
articles were carefully selected to write within their areas of specialization, but
they wrote their entries with the goal of setting forth the material in such a way
that educated readers, clergy, and scholars in related fields will be able to profit
from the contributions.
In planning a reference work such as this, there is always a danger that selec-
tion of the contributors will reflect the biases of those who organize it. In order
to counter this problem, a sincere effort has been made to avoid endorsing any
specific views and to include a wide spectrum of opinion. The many contributors
represent the diversity and international character of m o d e m scholarship on the
material. They also come from varied religious backgrounds and have been given
the freedom to write their articles in ways that reflect their own scholarly points
of view. The Encyclopedia of the Dead Sea Scrolls advances no unified ideology
about the ancient sites and finds. Authors were given scope descriptions of the
articles that they were invited to contribute, but they were also encouraged, as
experts in their particular fields, to develop their articles according to their best
judgment. The initial descriptions provided were meant only as guides, not as
restrictions on the contributors ' thinking. The authors were assigned word limits
o r their articles; these ranged from about five hundred to five thousand words.
The origins of the encyclopedia can be traced to a suggestion by Eric Meyers,
editor in chief of The Oxford Encyclopedia of Archaeology in the Near East, that
Oxford University Press be approached about publishing an encyclopedia of the
Dead Sea Scrolls. Lawrence H. Schiffman of New York University was the first
to be involved in the project, and Marlene Schiffman drafted a proposal that
was submitted to and accepted by Oxford University Press in 1992. James C.
VanderKam of the University of Notre Dame was invited to become the other
editor in chief along with Schiffman. The next step in the planning was to ap-
point an editorial board of experts in a range of subdisciplines connected with
scrolls research. Those who served in this capacity are George J. Brooke of the
University of Manchester, John J. Collins of the University of Chicago, Floren-
tino Garcia Martinez of the University of Groningen, Eileen M. Schuller of Mc-
Master University, Emanuel Tov of the Hebrew University, and Eugene Ulrich
of the University of Notre Dame.
The editors in chief and the editorial board also were assisted by Ephraim
Stern of the Hebrew University, who served as a consultant primarily in archaeo-
ogical matters, and by four advisers, Joseph A. Fitzmyer, the late Jonas C.
Greenfield, fimile Puech, and Hartmut Stegemann, who contributed their exper-
tise both in the initial definition of articles and their scope and, once the articles
>egan to be submitted, on specific topics and problem areas.
In the complicated process of planning the hundreds of articles to be included
