Encyclopedia of Space Science & Technology

1831 Pages·2003·39.24 MB·English

by  Ahmed Yousef

C00KIEEE
ENCYCLOPEDIA OF
SPACE SCIENCE
AND
TECHNOLOGY
VOLUME 1
ENCYCLOPEDIA OF SPACE SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
Editor JohnS. Lewis
HansMark Universityof ArizonaatTucson
TheUniversity ofTexas at Austin ThomasS. Moorman
BoozAllen &Hamilton
Norman F.Ness
AssociateEditors Universityof Delaware
MiltonA. Silveira RobertE. Smylie
Principal Engineer,AerospaceCorp. NationalAeronauticsSpace
Universityof Vermont Administration
MichaelYarymovych RichardH. Truly
PresidentInternational Academyof NationalRenewableEnergy Laboratory
Astronautics Albert D.Wheelon
HughesAircraft Co.
PeterG. Wilhelm
EditorialBoard U.S.Naval ResearchLaboratory
Vyacheslav M.Balebanov LaurenceR. Young
RussianAcademyofSciences MassachusettsInstituteofTechnology
William F.Ballhaus, Jr. AlexanderZakharov
TheAerospace Corporation RussianAcademyof Sciences
Robert H.Bishop
Universityof Texas atAustin
ManagingEditor
Aaron Cohen MaureenSalkin
Texas A&MUniversity
Wallace T.Fowler
EditorialStaff
Universityof Texas atAustin
VicePresident,STMBooks: JanetBailey
F.Andrew Gaffney
ExecutiveEditor:
Vanderbilt UniversityMedical Center
JacquelineI. Kroschwitz
OwenK. Garriott
Director,BookProductionandManufacturing:
Universityof Alabama
CamilleP.Carter
TomGehrels
Universityof Arizonaat Tucson ManagingEditor: Shirley Thomas
Gerry Griffin IllustrationsManager: DeanGonzalez
GDGConsulting AssistantManaging Editor:
KristenParrish
MiltonHalem
NASA-Goddard SpaceFlightCenter Editorial Assistant:Surlan Murrell
ENCYCLOPEDIA OF
SPACE SCIENCE
AND
TECHNOLOGY
VOLUME 1
Hans Mark
Editor
Milton Silveira
Associate Editor
Michael I. Yarymovych
Associate Editor
Maureen Salkin
Managing Editor
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EncyclopediaofSpaceScience&Technology/HansMark[editor].
p. cm.
Includesindex.
ISBN0-471-32408-6(set:acid-freepaper)
1.SpaceScience–Encyclopedias.I.Title:EncyclopediaofSpaceScienceandTechnology.
II.Mark,Hans,1929-
QB497.E532003
500.5003—dc21 2002028867
PrintedintheUnitedStatesofAmerica.
10987654321
High Flight
By Pilot Officer John G. Magee, Jr., RCAF
Oh, I have slipped the surly bonds of earth
And danced the skies on laughter-silvered wings;
Sunward I’ve climbed, and joined the tumbling mirth
Of Sun-split clouds – and done a hundred things
You have not dreamed of – wheeled and soared and swung
High in the sunlit silence. Hov’ring there.
I’ve chased the shouting wind along, and flung
My eager craft through footless halls of air.
Up, up the long, delirious, burning blue
I’ve topped the windswept heights with easy grace
Where never lark, or even eagle flew.
And, while with silent, lifting mind I’ve trod
The high untrespassed sanctity of space
Put out my hand, and touched the face of God.
PilotOfficerJohnGillespieMagee,Jr.,anAmericanservingwiththeRoyal
CanadianAirForce,composed‘‘HighFlight.’’HewasborninShanghai,Chinain
1922, the son of missionary parents, Reverend and Mrs. John Gillespie Magee;
his father was an American and his mother was originally a British citizen.
He came to the U.S. in 1939 and earned a scholarship to Yale, but in
September1940heenlistedintheRCAFandgraduatedasapilot.Hewassentto
England for combat duty in July 1941.
In August or September 1941, Pilot Officer Magee composed ‘‘High Flight’’
and sent a copy to his parents. Several months later, on December 11, 1941 his
‘‘Spitfire’’airplanecollidedwithanotherplaneoverEnglandandMagee,only19
years of age, crashed to his death. His remains are buried in the churchyard
cemetery at Scopwick, Lincolnshire.
This can be found on the website:
http://www.wpafb.af.mil/museum/history/prewwii/jgm.htm
v
PREFACE
Nicolaus Copernicus andGalileoGalileidevelopedthescientificknowledge
thatbecametheunderpinningofspaceflight.EdwardEverettHalein‘‘TheBrick
Moon’’ and Jules Verne in ‘‘From the Earth to the Moon’’ dreamed and wrote
about it. But finally in the last half of the twentieth century, it was the
Americans and the Soviet Russians, locked in the throes of the Cold War, who
accomplished it. A good case can be made that when historians look back at the
twentieth century, the initial efforts of humankind to slip ‘‘the surly bonds of
Earth’’ will play a dominant role.
Today, we call the sixteenth century the ‘‘Age of Exploration’’ because by
combiningthefore-and-aftsailrigofArabdhowswiththestudyhulloftheBaltic
cog, the ‘‘caravel’’ was created that could safely sail all the oceans of the world.
Thus, in the final years of the fifteenth century, Bartolomeo Diaz, Christopher
Columbus,andVascodaGamaopenedastonishingnewvistasusingthecaravels.
In less than a century after their epochal voyages, the geography of the Earth
was essentially understood and things were forever changed.
Today,becauseoftheadventofrockettechnology,westandatthethreshold
ofsendinghumanstoMarsaswellastootherplacesintheSolarSystem.Weare
withinadecadeofsending people backtoourown Moon toestablishpermanent
stationstoexploitlunarresourcesandtocreatestagingbasesforthelarge-scale
exploration of the Solar System. As was the case half a millennium ago, things
will change forever when this is done.
We have both been involved in this initial exploratory effort in an intimate
way.Oneofus(RichardH.Truly)hasactuallyflowninspaceandbothofushave
participated in and led the organizations established in the United States to
conductspaceexploration. Both ofus havealsobeentouched by thebrutalwars
of the twentieth century, and we therefore know how these have influenced the
lives of people all over the world as well.
The idea of this Encyclopedia of Space Science and Technology was
conceived late in 1997 when one of us (Hans Mark) had a conversation with
Dr. Edmund H. Immergut, who has had a long and distinguished career in
scientificpublishingandintheproductionofencyclopedias.Hebelievedthatthe
enterprise of space exploration was far enough along – 40 years after the first
orbital flight of Sputnik I – that a good technical encyclopedia on the subject
would be timely and appropriate. In developing the ideas for the encyclopedia,
the following principles were established.
* The encyclopedia would be written at a high technical level, i.e., for an
audienceoftechnicallyliteratepeoplewho werenotexpertsinspacescience
or technology.
* The encyclopedia would contain articles that would describe the tech-
nology of space exploration as well as the scientific results and their
applications.
* Theauthorswhowouldbeselectedtowritearticleswouldbepeoplewhoare,
or have been, active participants in enterprise of space exploration.
vii
viii PREFACE Vol. 1
The encyclopedia would be international and would attempt to capture the
*
spirit that animated the enterprise for the past half century.
* Theencyclopediawouldhaveabroadlybasededitorialboardwhosemembers
wouldhelptoselectauthorsandassistinpassingjudgmentonthequalityof
the work.
It is our hope that we have largely adhered to these principles. The
Encyclopedia of Space Science and Technology consists of nearly 80 articles
organized under eight separate categories. There is an appropriate index and a
tableofcontentsthatshouldmakeiteasyforreaderstofindthetopicofinterest
for which they are searching.
Throughout this work, both of us have enjoyed working with old and new
colleagues. We would like to extend our appreciation to everyone who
participatedinthiseffort,firstandforemost,ourauthorsfortheircontributions,
ourAssociateEditors,Drs.MiltonA.SilveiraandMichaelI.Yarymovych,andall
the members of our Editorial Board for their participation and advice. Finally,
special thanks are due to our Managing Editor, Ms. Maureen A. Salkin, for her
tirelessandhighlydiplomaticeffortstokeepthingsrollingsothatwecannowall
see the final result.
Richard H. Truly
Golden, Colorado
Hans Mark
Austin, Texas
CONTRIBUTORS
BrianAllen,ThiokolPropulsion,Inc.,BrighamCity,Utah,SolidFuelRockets
R.C.Anderson,CaliforniaInstituteofTechnology,Pasadena,California,PathfinderMissiontoMars
Kenneth M. Baldwin, University of California, Irvine, California, Muscle Loss in Space:
PhysiologicalConsequences
Vyacheslav M. Balebanov, Russian Academy of Sciences, Institute of Space Research, Russia,
PlasmaThrusters
V.A. Bartenev, Scientific-Production Association of Applied Mechanics, Russia, Communication
SatelliteDevelopmentinRussia
AlexanderT.Basilevsky,VernadskyInstituteofGeochemistryandAnalyticalChemistry, Russian
AcademyofSciences,Moscow,Russia,ExplorationoftheMoonbySovietSpacecraft;VenusMissions
J.R.Beattie,WestlakeVillage,California,Rockets,IonPropulsion
RobertR.Bennet,ThiokolPropulsion,Inc.,BrighamCity,Utah,SolidFuelRockets
GeorgeA.Berkley,ThiokolPropulsion,Inc.,BrighamCity,Utah,SolidFuelRockets
JonH.Brown,FortWorth,Texas,SpacecraftGuidance,NavigationandControlSystems
BorisChertok,ENERGIASpaceAssociation,Russia,Sputnik1:TheFirstArtificialEarthSatellite
EdwardL.Chupp,UniversityofNewHampshire,Durham,NewHampshire,Sun
AnitaL.Cochran,TheUniversityofTexasMcDonaldObservatory,Austin,Texas,Comets
Aaron Cohen, NASA – Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center, Space Shuttle Orbiter Project Office,
Houston,Texas,SpaceShuttleOrbiter
Richard J. Cohen, Harvard University—Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge,
Massachusetts,CardiovascularSysteminSpace
GlennD.Considine,Westfield,Massachusetts,Mars
DouglassB.Cook,ThiokolPropulsion,Inc.,BrighamCity,Utah,SolidFuelRockets
RobertL.Crippen,ThiokolPropulsion,Inc.,BrighamCity,Utah,SolidFuelRockets
F.A.Cucinotta,NASAJohnsonSpaceCenter,Houston,Texas,SpaceRadiation
AlexanderF.Dedus,RussianAviationandSpaceAgency,Russia,RussianSpaceports
J.F.Dicello,JohnsHopkinsUniversitySchoolofMedicine,Baltimore,Maryland,SpaceRadiation
Steven D. Dorfman, Hughes Electronics Corporation, Los Angeles, California, Commercial
ApplicationsofCommunicationsSatelliteTechnology;CommunicationsSatellites,Technologyof
TimothyE.Dowling,UniversityofLouisville,Louisville,Kentucky,Jupiter
V. Reggie Edgerton, University of California, Los Angeles, California, Muscle Loss in Space:
PhysiologicalConsequences
Alexander N. Egorov, Yu.A. Gagarin Cosmonaut Training Center, Russia, Cosmonauts Selection
andPreparation
GabrielElkaim,StanfordUniversity,Stanford,California,GlobalPositioningSystem(GPS)
MaximeA.Faget,NASA-JohnsonSpaceCenter,Houston,Texas,U.S.MannedSpaceflight:Mercury
totheShuttle
DaleFenn,OrbitalSciencesCorporation,Dulles,Virginia,AirandShip-BasedSpaceLaunchVehicles
HaroldB.Finger,NationalAeronauticsandSpaceAdministrationandAtomicEnergyCommission,
Washington,D.C.,NuclearRocketsandRamjets
UweFink,LunarandPlanetaryLabUniversityofArizona,Tucson,Arizona,SaturnSystem
Charles T. Force, Tracy’s Landing, Maryland, Earth-Orbiting Satellites, Data Receiving and
HandlingFacilities
MarvinGlickstein,Pratt&Whitney,PalmBeach,Florida,Liquid-FueledRockets
Teresa Gomez, NASA Johnson Space Center, Houston, Texas, Astronauts and the People who
SelectedThem:ACompendium
L.Gorshkov,ENERGIARSC,Russia,RussianSpaceStations
ix
x CONTRIBUTORS Vol. 1
RobertP.Graham,ThiokolPropulsion,Inc.,BrighamCity,Utah,SolidFuelRockets
Anatoly I. Grigoriev, Institute of Biomedical Problems, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow,
Russia,BiomedicalSupportofPilotedSpaceflight;SpaceLifeSciences
HerbertGursky,NavalResearchLaboratory,Washington,DC,SciencefromSoundingRockets
MartinHarwit,CornellUniversity,Ithaca,NewYork,Astronomy–Infrared
W.MichaelHawes,NASA,Washington,DistrictofColumbia,InternationalSpaceStation
ClarkW.Hawk,Madison,Alabama,RocketPropulsionTheory
Steven A. Hawley, NASA Johnson Space Center, Houston, Texas, Human Operations in Space
DuringtheSpaceShuttleEra
HansE.W.Hoffmann,ORBCOMMLLC,Dulles,Virginia,Spacelab
StephenHoran,NewMexicoStateUniversity,LasCruces,NewMexico,Earth-OrbitingSatellites,
DataReceivingandHandlingFacilities
RossM.Jones,JetPropulsionLaboratory,CaliforniaInstituteofTechnology,Pasadena,California,
PlanetaryExplorationSpacecraftDesign
RussellJoyner,Pratt&Whitney,PalmBeach,Florida,Liquid-FueledRockets
JosephKerwin,Houston,Texas,Skylab
JosephJ.Kliger,ThiokolPropulsion,Inc.,BrighamCity,Utah,SolidFuelRockets
PetrI.Klimuk,Yu.A.GagarinCosmonautTrainingCenter,Russia,FirstFlightofManinSpace
StanislavNikolaevichKonyukhov,M.K.Yangel’YuzhnoyeStateDesignOffice,Dniepropetrovsk,
Ukraine,ConversionofMissilesintoSpaceLaunchVehicles
Jean Kovalevsky, Cerga-Observatoire de la Coˆte d’Azur, Grasse, France, Optical Astrometryfrom
Space
A.G. Kozlov, Scientific-Production Association of Applied Mechanics, Russia, Communication
SatelliteDevelopmentinRussia
AlexanderN.Kuznetsov,RussianAviationandSpaceAgency,Russia,Russia’sLaunchVehicles;
RussianSpaceports
JamesW.Layland,CaliforniaInstituteofTechnology,Pasadena,California,DeepSpaceNetwork,
EvolutionofTechnology
David S. Leckrone, NASA, Goddard Space Flight Center, Greenbelt, Maryland, Hubble Space
Telescope
James R. Lesh, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, California, Deep Space Network,
EvolutionofTechnology
JohnS.Lewis,UniversityofArizona,Tucson,Arizona,SpaceResources,OccurrenceandUses
WahL.Lim,HughesElectronicsCorporation,LosAngeles,California,CommercialApplicationsof
CommunicationsSatelliteTechnology
Glynn S. Lunney, Houston, Texas, NASA Mission Operation Control Center at Johnson Space
Center
RonaldW.Lyman,ThiokolPropulsion,Inc.,BrighamCity,Utah,SolidFuelRockets
DmitryK.Malashenkov,InstituteofBiomedicalProblems,RussianAcademyofSciences,Moscow,
Russia,BiomedicalSupportofPilotedSpaceflight;SpaceLifeSciences
JerryW.Manweiler,FundamentalTechnologiesLLC,Lawrence,Kansas,InterplanetaryMedium
HansMark,Austin,Texas,EvolutionofU.S.ExpendableLaunchVehicles
Ian R. McNab, The University of Texas at Austin, The Institute for Advanced Technology, Austin,
Texas,ElectromagneticPropulsion
Valeriy A. Menshikov, Khrunichev Space Center, Moscow, Russia, Global Navigation Satellite
System;MilitaryUseofSpace
JeromeH.Molitor,WestlakeVillage,California,Rockets,IonPropulsion
Vasily I. Moroz, Space Research Institute, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow, Russia,
ExplorationofMarsbytheUSSR;VenusMissions
AlexeyI.Morozov,RussianScienceCenter,KurchatovInstitute, Russia,PlasmaThrusters
DavidMorrison,NASAAmesResearchCenter,MoffettField,California,Asteroids;Astrobiology