Encyclopedia of Solid Earth Geophysics (Encyclopedia of Earth Sciences Series)

1578 Pages·2011·74.67 MB·English

by  Harsh K. Gupta

ENCYCLOPEDIA of
SOLID EARTH
GEOPHYSICS
Encyclopedia of Earth Sciences Series
ENCYCLOPEDIA OF SOLID EARTH GEOPHYSICS
Volume Editor
HarshK.GuptacurrentlyholdstheprestigiousPanikkarProfessorshipattheNationalGeophysicalResearchInstitute(NGRI),CouncilofScientific
&IndustrialResearch(CSIR),Hyderabad,India.PursuingaluminouscareerinavarietyofaspectsoftheEarthSciencesforoverfourdecades,heis
globallyknownforprovidingthefirstgeophysicalevidenceofanenormouslythickcrustbelowtheHimalayaandTibetPlateauregion,identifying
thecommoncharacteristicsofartificialwaterreservoirtriggeredearthquakesanddiscriminatingthemfromnormalearthquakes,settingupIndia’s
firstpermanentstationatAntarcticainarecordtime,andintherecentyears,spearheadingthedesigningandcommissioningoftheTsunamiWarning
SystemforIndia,afterthedisastroustsunamicausedbythe26thDecember2004Sumatraearthquake.Hehaspublishedover200papersandwritten
4pioneeringbooks,publishedbyElsevier.
Editorial Board
KusumitaArora AjayManglik
NationalGeophysicalResearchInstitute NationalGeophysicalResearchInstitute
CouncilofScientificandIndustrialResearch(CSIR) CouncilofScientificandIndustrialResearch(CSIR)
UppalRoad UppalRoad
Hyderabad500606 Hyderabad500606
India India
AnnyCazenave SukantaRoy
Laboratoired’EtudesenGéophysiqueet NationalGeophysicalResearchInstitute
OcéanographieSpatiales(LEGOS) CouncilofScientificandIndustrialResearch(CSIR)
CentreNationald’EtudesSpatiales UppalRoad
18AvenueEdouardBelin Hyderabad500606
31401ToulouseCedex4 India
France
KalachandSain
EricRobertEngdahl NationalGeophysicalResearchInstitute
CenterforImagingtheEarth’sInterior CouncilofScientificandIndustrialResearch(CSIR)
DepartmentofPhysics UppalRoad
UniversityofColoradoatBoulder Hyderabad500606
CampusBox390UCB India
Boulder,CO80309-0390
USA SeiyaUyeda
JapanAcademy
RainerKind 7-32,UenoPark
HelmholtzCentrePotsdam Taito-ku,Tokyo110-0007
GFZGermanResearchCentreforGeosciences Japan
Section2.4,Seismology
TelegrafenbergA3
14473Potsdam
Germany
Aims of the Series
TheEncyclopediaofEarthSciencesSeriesprovidescomprehensiveandauthoritativecoverageofallthemainareasintheEarthSciences.Each
volumecomprisesafocusedandcarefullychosencollectionofcontributionsfromleadingnamesinthesubject,withcopiousillustrationsand
referencelists.
Thesebooksrepresentoneoftheworld’sleadingresourcesfortheEarthSciencescommunity.Previousvolumesarebeingupdatedandnew
workspublishedsothatthevolumeswillcontinuetobeessentialreadingforallprofessionalearthscientists,geologists,geophysicists,climatolo-
gists,andoceanographersaswellasforteachersandstudents.SeethedustjacketofthisvolumeforacurrentlistoftitlesintheEncyclopediaofEarth
SciencesSeries.Gotohttp://www.springerlink.com/reference-works/ tovisitthe“EarthSciencesSeries”online.
About the Series Editor
ProfessorCharlesW.Finklhaseditedand/orcontributedtomorethaneightvolumesintheEncyclopediaofEarthSciencesSeries.Forthepast25
yearshehasbeentheExecutiveDirectoroftheCoastalEducation&ResearchFoundationandEditor-in-ChiefoftheinternationalJournalofCoastal
Research.Inadditiontotheseduties,heisResearchProfessoratFloridaAtlanticUniversityinBocaRaton,Florida,USA.Heisagraduateofthe
UniversityofWesternAustralia(Perth)andpreviouslyworkedforawhollyownedAustraliansubsidiaryoftheInternationalNickelCompanyof
Canada(INCO).Duringhiscareer,heacquiredfieldexperienceinAustralia;theCaribbean;SouthAmerica;SWPacificislands;southernAfrica;
WesternEurope;andthePacificNorthwest,Midwest,andSoutheastUSA.
Founding Series Editor
ProfessorRhodesW.Fairbridge(deceased)haseditedmorethan24EncyclopediasintheEarthSciencesSeries.Duringhiscareerhehasworkedas
apetroleumgeologistintheMiddleEast,beenaWWIIintelligenceofficerintheSWPacificandledexpeditionstotheSahara,ArcticCanada,Arctic
Scandinavia,BrazilandNewGuinea.HewasEmeritusProfessorofGeologyatColumbiaUniversityandwasaffiliatedwiththeGoddardInstitute
forSpaceStudies.
ENCYCLOPEDIA OF EARTH SCIENCES SERIES
ENCYCLOPEDIA of
SOLID EARTH
GEOPHYSICS
edited by
HARSH K. GUPTA
National Geophysical Research Institute
Council of Scientific and Industrial Research
Hyderabad
India
LibraryofCongressControlNumber:2011924208
ISBN: 978-90-481-8701-0
Thispublicationisavailablealsoas:
ElectronicpublicationunderISBN978-90-481-8702-7and
PrintandelectronicbundleunderISBN978-90-481-8732-4
PublishedbySpringer
P.O.Box17,3300AADordrecht,TheNetherlands
TheoriginalEncyclopediaofSolidEarthGeophysicswascompiledbyDavidE.James,andwasfirstpublishedinthe
EncyclopediaofEarthSciencesSeriesin1989.
Printedonacid-freepaper
Coverfigurecredit:MineralPhysicsInstituteatStonyBrookUniversity,illustrationbyKeelinMurphy
Everyefforthasbeenmadetocontactthecopyrightholdersofthefiguresandtableswhichhavebeenreproduced
fromothersources.Anyonewhohasnotbeenproperlycreditedisrequestedtocontactthepublishers,sothatdue
acknowledgmentmaybemadeinsubsequenteditions.
AllRightsReservedforContributionsonGravity,DatatoAnomalies;Gravity,GlobalModels;Instrumentation,
ElectricalResistivity;SphericalHarmonicAnalysisAppliedtoPotentialFields
©SpringerScienceþBusinessMediaB.V.2011
Nopartofthisworkmaybereproduced,storedinaretrievalsystem,ortransmittedinanyformorbyanymeans,
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Contents
Contributors xiii CrustalReflectivity(Oceanic)andMagmaChamber 78
SatishC.Singh
Preface xxxv
CurieTemperature 89
Acknowledgments xxxvii VincenzoPasquale
AbsoluteAgeDeterminations:Radiometric 1 DeepScientificDrilling 91
RichardW.Carlson UlrichHarmsandHaroldJ.Tobin
DeepSeismicReflectionandRefractionProfiling 103
Archaeomagnetism 8
KabirRoyChowdhury
DonaldH.Tarling
DifferentialRotationoftheEarth’sInnerCore 118
Archaeoseismology 11
XiaodongSong
Klaus-GünterHinzen
EarthRotation 123
ArtificialWaterReservoirTriggeredEarthquakes 15
HaraldSchuhandSigridBöhm
HarshK.Gupta
EarthTides 129
Biogeophysics 25
JohnM.Wahr
LeeSlaterandEstellaAtekwana
Earth,DensityDistribution 133
BodyWaves 29
FrankD.StaceyandPaulM.Davis
MahmoudMohamedSelimSaleh
Earth’sStructure,Core 137
CharacteristicEarthquakesandSeismicGaps 37
LianxingWen
DavidD.JacksonandYanY.Kagan
Earth’sStructure,ContinentalCrust 138
ContinentalDrift 40 RolfMeissnerandHartmutKern
AlanG.Smith
Earth’sStructure,Global 144
ContinentalRifts 41 Jean-PaulMontagner
A.M.CelâlŞengör
Earth’sStructure,LowerMantle 154
CoreDynamo 55 EdwardJ.Garnero,AllenK.McNamaraand
UlrichR.Christensen JamesA.Tyburczy
Core-MantleCoupling 64 Earth’sStructure,UpperMantle 159
PaulH.RobertsandJonathanM.Aurnou GuustNolet
vi CONTENTS
EarthquakeLights 165 Earthquakes,Volcanogenic 261
JohnS.Derr,FranceSt-Laurent, J.W.Neuberg
FriedemannT.FreundandRobertThériault
ElectricalPropertiesofRocks 270
EarthquakePrecursorsandPrediction 168 TakashiYoshino
SeiyaUyeda,ToshiyasuNagaoand
MasashiKamogawa ElectricalResistivitySurveysandData
Interpretation 276
EarthquakePrediction,M8Algorithm 178 MengHengLoke
AlikIsmail-ZadehandVladimirKossobokov
ElectronicGeophysicalYear 283
WilliamK.Peterson,DanielN.Baker,
EarthquakeRupture:InverseProblem 182
C.E.Barton,PeterFox,M.A.Parsonsand
ShamitaDas
EmilyA.CoBabe-Ammann
EarthquakeSounds 188
EnergyBudgetoftheEarth 285
AndrewJ.Michael
Jean-ClaudeMareschalandClaudeJaupart
Earthquake,Aftershocks 192
EnergyPartitioningofSeismicWaves 291
MianLiuandSethStein
KalachandSain
Earthquake,FocalMechanism 194
EquatorialElectrojet 294
EmileA.Okal
ArchanaBhattacharyya
Earthquake,Foreshocks 199 FractalsandChaos 297
MianLiu VijayP.Dimri,RaviP.Srivastavaand
NimishaVedanti
Earthquake,LocationTechniques 201
CliffordH.Thurber FreeOscillationsoftheEarth 302
SarvaJitSinghandSunitaRani
Earthquake,Magnitude 207
PeterBormann Geodesy,FigureoftheEarth 313
KusumitaArora
EarthquakesandCrustalDeformation 218
RobertMcCaffrey Geodesy,GroundPositioningandLeveling 316
SteliosP.Mertikas
Earthquakes,EarlyandStrongMotionWarning 226
Geodesy,NetworksandReferenceSystems 323
RichardM.Allen
HayoHase
Earthquakes,Energy 233
Geodesy,Physical 331
DomenicoDiGiacomoandPeterBormann
V.Chakravarthi
Earthquakes,Intensity 237
GeodeticPendulums,HorizontalUltra
GottfriedGrünthal
BroadBand 336
CarlaBraitenberg
Earthquakes,PAGER 243
DavidJ.Wald
Geodynamics 340
AlessandroM.Forte
Earthquakes,ShakeMap 245
DavidJ.Wald Geoelectromagnetism 341
AntalÁdámandLászlóSzarka
Earthquakes,SourceTheory 248
RaulMadariaga Geoid 353
ParameshBanerjee
Earthquakes,Strong-GroundMotion 252
GiulianoF.Panza,CristinaLaMura, GeoidDetermination,TheoryandPrinciples 356
FabioRomanelliandFrancoVaccari MichaelG.Sideris
CONTENTS vii
GeoidUndulation,Interpretation 362 GravityField,TemporalVariationsfromSpace
PetrVaníček Techniques 484
AnnyCazenave,G.Ramillienand
Geoid,ComputationalMethod 366 RichardBiancale
MichaelG.Sideris
GravityField,TimeVariationsfromSurface
GeomagneticExcursions 371 Measurements 489
MarthaSchwartz VirendraM.TiwariandJacquesHinderer
GeomagneticField,GlobalPattern 373 GravityMeasurements,Absolute 494
SusanMacmillan MarkA.Zumberge
GeomagneticField,IGRF 379 GravityMethod,Airborne 497
AudeChambodut UweMeyer
GeomagneticField,MeasurementTechniques 381 GravityMethod,Principles 500
MioaraMandeaandAncaIsac Hans-JürgenGötze
GeomagneticField,PolarityReversals 386
GravityMethod,Satellite 504
CarloLaj
GeorgesBalmino
GeomagneticField,SecularVariation 394
GravityMethod,Surface 513
MonikaKorte
DineshChandraMishraandVirendraM.Tiwari
GeomagneticField,Theory 394
GravityModeling,TheoryandComputation 518
FriedrichH.Busse
Jean-PierreBarriotandLydieSichoix
GeophysicalWellLogging 401
Gravity,DatatoAnomalies 524
MiroslavKobr
RonHackney
GeothermalHeatPumps 411
Gravity,GlobalModels 533
LadislausRybach
NikolaosK.Pavlis
GeothermalRecordofClimateChange 415
Gravity,Gradiometry 547
MichaelG.Davis,DavidS.Chapmanand
ChristopherJekeli
RobertN.Harris
GreatEarthquakes 561
GPS,DataAcquisitionandAnalysis 420
RogerM.W.Musson
CarineBruyninx,WimAertsandJulietteLegrand
HeatFlowMeasurements,Continental 569
GPS,TectonicGeodesy 431
JohnH.SassandGraemeBeardsmore
JeffreyT.Freymueller
Gravimeters 449 HeatFlow,Continental 573
AndrewHugill PaulMorgan
GravityAnomalies,Interpretation 456 HeatFlow,Seafloor:MethodsandObservations 582
MikhailK.Kaban EarlE.DavisandAndrewT.Fisher
GravityData,AdvancedProcessing 461 ImpactCratersonEarth 593
ChristopherJ.SwainandJonathanF.Kirby RichardA.F.GrieveandGordonR.Osinski
GravityData,Regional–ResidualSeparation 466 Instrumentation,ElectricalResistivity 599
KumarendraMallick,AnthwarVasanthiand MengH.Loke,JonathanE.Chambersand
KrishnaKantSharma OliverKuras
GravityFieldoftheEarth 471 Instrumentation,EM 604
ChristopherJekeli StevenConstable
viii CONTENTS
InternationalGeophysicalYear 608 MagneticDataEnhancementsandDepth
RalphW.Baird Estimation 736
CliveFoss
InternationalGravityFormula 611
Hans-JürgenGötze MagneticDomains 746
SusanL.Halgedahl
InternationalPolarYear2007–2008 612
DavidJ.Carlson MagneticGradiometry 758
HaraldvonderOsten-Woldenburg
InternationalYearofPlanetEarth 614
EduardoF.J.deMulderandWolfgangEder MagneticMethods,Airborne 761
MikeDentith
InverseTheory,ArtificialNeuralNetworks 618
WilliamA.SandhamandDavidJ.Hamilton MagneticMethods,Principles 767
KusumitaArora
InverseTheory,GlobalOptimization 625
MrinalK.SenandPaulL.Stoffa MagneticMethods,Satellite 771
DhananjayRavat
InverseTheory,Linear 632
PravinK.Gupta MagneticMethods,Surface 774
NandiniNagarajan
InverseTheory,MonteCarloMethod 639
MalcolmSambridgeandKerryGallagher MagneticModeling,TheoryandComputation 781
MioaraMandea,CarmenGainaandVincentLesur
InverseTheory,SingularValueDecomposition 645
AjayManglik MagneticStormsandElectromagneticPulsations 792
GurbaxS.LakhinaandBruceT.Tsurutani
Isostasy 647
AnthonyB.Watts Magnetic,GlobalAnomalyMap 796
KumarHemantSingh
Isostasy,Thermal 662
DavidS.ChapmanandDerrickHasterok Magnetometers 810
IvanHrvoic
LegalContinentalShelf 669
RayWood,StuartA.Henrys,VaughanStagpoole, MagnetotelluricDataProcessing 816
BryanDavyandIanWright GaryEgbert
Lithosphere,Continental 675 MagnetotelluricInterpretation 822
DavidE.James JohnF.Hermance
Lithosphere,Continental:ThermalStructure 681 MagnetovariationStudies 830
ClaudeJaupartandJean-ClaudeMareschal NandiniNagarajan
Lithosphere,MechanicalProperties 693 MantleConvection 832
EvgueniBurov DavidBercovici
Lithosphere,Oceanic 701 MantleD00 Layer 851
JamesMcClain ThorneLay
Lithosphere,Oceanic:ThermalStructure 709 MantlePlumes 857
EarlE.DavisandDavidS.Chapman CinziaG.FarnetaniandAlbrechtW.Hofmann
MagneticAnisotropy 717 MantleViscosity 869
LeonardoSagnotti W.R.Peltier
MagneticAnomalies,Interpretation 729 NumericalMethods,BoundaryElement 877
ErwanThébault MicheleCooke
CONTENTS ix
NumericalMethods,DomainDecomposition 879 PropagationofElasticWaves:Fundamentals 1006
AlfioQuarteroniandLucaFormaggia FranciscoJ.Sánchez-SesmaandUrsula
Iturrarán-Viveros
NumericalMethods,FiniteDifference 883
JohanO.A.RobertssonandJoakimO.Blanch RadioactivityinEarth’sCore 1013
V.RamaMurthy
NumericalMethods,FiniteElement 892
J.N.Reddy RadiogenicHeatProductionofRocks 1018
ChristophClauser
NumericalMethods,Multigrid 895
WimA.Mulder RemanentMagnetism 1024
LaurieBrownandSuzanneMcEnroe
OceanBottomSeismics 901
IngoA.Pecher,JörgBialasandErnstR.Flueh RemoteSensingandGISTechniquesforTectonic
Studies 1030
SemereSolomonandWoldaiGhebreab
Ocean,SpreadingCentre 908
K.S.Krishna
RemoteSensing,ApplicationstoGeophysics 1035
HojjatollahRanjbar
OceanicIntraplateDeformation:TheCentral
IndianOceanBasin 913
SARInterferometry 1041
D.GopalaRaoandD.A.BhaskaraRao
MasatoFuruya
PaleomagneticFieldIntensity 919
SatelliteLaserRanging 1049
AndrewBiggin,NeilSuttieandJohnShaw
DavidCoulot,FlorentDeleflie,
PascalBonnefond,PierreExertier,OlivierLaurain
Paleomagnetism,Magnetostratigraphy 925
andBertranddeSaint-Jean
DonaldR.Prothero
SeafloorSpreading 1055
Paleomagnetism,MeasurementTechniquesand
RichardN.Hey
Instrumentation 933
TallavajhalaRadhakrishnaandJ.D.A.Piper
SedimentaryBasins 1059
MagdalenaScheck-Wenderoth
Paleomagnetism,PolarWander 945
JeanBesse,VincentCourtillotandMarianneGreff
SeismicAnisotropy 1070
ThorstenW.Becker
Paleomagnetism,Principles 955
WilliamLowrie
SeismicDataAcquisitionandProcessing 1081
KabirRoyChowdhury
Paleoseismology 964
ShinjiToda
SeismicDiffraction 1097
EnruLiu
PlateDrivingForces 977
AlessandroM.Forte SeismicDiscontinuitiesintheTransitionZone 1102
LevP.Vinnik
PlateMotionsinTime:InferencesonDrivingand
ResistingForces 983 SeismicHazard 1107
GiampieroIaffaldanoandHans-PeterBunge AndrzejKijko
PlateTectonics,Precambrian 991 SeismicImaging,Overview 1121
Y.J.BhaskarRaoandE.V.S.S.K.Babu GerardT.Schuster
PlatesandPaleoreconstructions 998 SeismicInstrumentation 1134
AlanG.Smith DuncanCarrAgnew
Poroelasticity 1003 SeismicMicrozonation 1140
RanBachrach FumioYamazakiandYoshihisaMaruyama