Table Of ContentEncyclopedia of
School Psychology
Encyclopedia of
School Psychology
Edited by
T. Steuart Watson
Miami University
Oxford, Ohio
and
Christopher H. Skinner
University o/Tennessee
Knoxville, Tennessee
Kluwer Academic I Plenum Publishers
New York, Boston, Dordrecht, London, Moscow
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Encyclopedia of school psychology 1 edited by T Steuart Watson and Christopher H. Skinner.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references.
I. School psychology-Encyclopedias. 2. Child psychology-Encyclopedias.
3. Educational psychology-Encyclopedias. I. Watson, T Steuart.
II. Skinner, Christopher H.
LB I 027.55.E52 2004
370.15103-dc22
2004049695
ISBN 978-1-4757-0994-0 ISBN 978-0-387-22556-2 (eBook)
DOI 10.1007/978-0-387-22556-2
© 2004 K1uwer Academic/Plenum Publishers
Softcover reprint of the hardcover 1 st edition 2004
233 Spring Street, New York, New York 10013
http://www.k1uweronline.com
10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 I
A c.1.P. record for this book is available from the Library of Congress
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Life is often compared to many things: paved roads, journeys, sweet tarts, and baseball games to name a few. In the
end, a life lived is the only true measure of a person. It is unique in the radiant joy and intense heartache that it
brings to each of us. As the next chapter of life unfolds, I dedicate this book to those who have stood fiercely tall and
firm in their support: Tonya, Mackenzie, Tucker, Addison, Dad (Henry), and Mom (Johnnie Marie). God bless each
one of you always for your special gifts and contributions.
-TSW
In memory of my father, Carl F. Skinner who passed away as this project was in progress. He loved everything about
schools and education.
-CHS
Preface
When approached to edit an encyclopedia of school psychology, to name a few. In fact, much of the literature base for the prac
we were both excited and concerned. Our excitement stemmed tice of school psychology is derived from these and other fields.
from recognizing that there was a need for an authoritative ref Thus, deciding which topics to include and exclude became a
erence text that would appeal to, and be understood by, a broad rather daunting task. There was always the fear of excluding
audience. Different professions develop their own language and a topic that someone else would have deemed essential for an
jargon, many of which are abbreviations that allow for more encyclopedia of school psychology. Therefore, we used some
efficient communication among professionals. However, these decision rules for which topics to include. The first rule in
abbreviations cloud basic communication with those outside volved omitting biographies of living persons. There are many
the field. With this text and brief entries, our esteemed group current figures whose work and contributions will be well re
of authors has attempted to help readers gain an elementary un membered in future encyclopedias and reference works. One
derstanding of this efficient communication and the meaning of the dangers of including those living is that someone and
It conveys. his/her work will be inadvertently omitted. In addition, it may
Despite being a distinct profession for several decades, be some time before the work of current figures is fully recog
there remains considerable confusion and lack of knowledge nized for the long-term impact it has on the field. A second rule
about who school psychologists are, what they do, and the prac involved the criterion of representation. Representation in the
tices and concepts that define our field. This confusion is not sense that we realized that not every topic related to school psy
limited to lay persons, it also abounds among other profession chology could be reasonably included, so we decided to include
als. As just one example, a school psychologist was in a meet those that represent different areas. For instance, it would not
ing recently with individuals representing several professions, be feasible to include every law that has impacted and shaped
one of which was child psychiatry. Upon being introduced as school psychology. Instead, we chose laws, and other topics, that
a school psychologist, the psychiatrist replied, "Oh, then you represent a broad spectrum, within a given area, of the major
must do guidance counseling." Thus, one of the purposes of influences on school psychology. Given the breadth and depth
this encyclopedia is to assist individuals in acquiring a general of our field, we found it very difficult to narrow our list of en
understanding of some of the theories, practices, and language tries. We realize we have made some errors (perhaps many) of
associated with the field of school psychology. This is one of the omission and inclusion. We will try to do better next time.
needs that most excited us when we were approached to edit The entries in this encyclopedia are organized alphabeti
this reference text. cally for ease of use and oflocating subject matter. Biographical
Recognizing the need for an authoritative text also caused entries are indexed according to the subject's last name (e.g.,
us considerable concern. Our concern emanated from the real Skinner, B. F., Watson, John B.). Some entries have multi
ization that school psychology, as a profession and field, incor ple "subentries" with different authors. For example, the Read
porates a breadth of practices and theories and is substantially ing entry contains an entry on curriculum-based measurement,
related to the fields of child clinical psychology, pediatric learning disability, and intervention.
psychology, special education, education, clinical psychology, Each entry also contains a bibliography of references that
applied behavior analysis, developmental psychology, psycho was used by the author(s) as the entry was prepared. Follow
pathology, educational psychology, and cognitive psychology, ing the bibliography is a list of suggested readings for both
Vll
Preface Vlll
professionals and nonprofessionals, where appropriate. Authors would be no encyclopedia. Second, a hearty thank you goes to
were encouraged to include Web sites as additional readings if Mariclaire Cloutier, Publishing Director, Behavioral Sciences,
they were available and germane to the entry. Authors were at Kluwer Academic/Plenum Publishers for entrusting us with
also instructed to include, within the text of the entry, only this most worthy project. Third, for the support and direction
a minimal number of citations so as not to interfere with provided by Siiri LeLumees, former Child Psychology Editor,
readability and to write in an authoritative but user-friendly at Kluwer Academic/Plenum Publishers and Anna Tobias, who
tone. Cross references are also included that direct the reader kept us on track and asked all the right questions, we are eter
to other entries that provide further clarification on related nally grateful. And finally, we would like to thank those in
topics. advance who will give us constructive feedback on this volume
A work of this magnitude is the result of the efforts of many. so that future volumes may be improved.
First, our sincere compliments are extended to those who con
tributed to this volume. Without their expertise and commit T. STEUART WATSON
ment to writing in precise yet understandable language, there CHRISTOPHER H. SKINNER
Aa
School refusal behavior refers to youth who are completely
or partially absent from school, those who attempt to refuse
Absenteeism
school by demonstrating severe morning behavior problems,
and youth who attend school under great duress. Partial ab
Absenteeism from school may be defined as any legitimate or sence from school often comes in the form of skipped classes
illegitimate absence from school for school-aged youth (e.g., (especially physical education and any classes that involve per
5-17 years). Most cases of absence from school are for legitimate formance before others), missed sections of the day (e.g., all
or legal reasons, including illness (especially asthma) and exten classes after lunch), and tardiness in the morning (Kearney &
sive medical conditions, religious holidays, important family oc Silverman, 1996).
casions (e.g., wedding, funeral), poor weather conditions, and Absenteeism from school has been discussed in popular
special exemptions for attendance at college classes or work literature for centuries, but first became the focus of educa
related activities. Other cases of school absenteeism are illegal tional and psychological study in the late nineteenth to early
in nature, and may include situations where parents deliber rwentieth centuries. A series of child labor laws enacted in the
ately keep a child from school, where families are in exigent United Kingdom, United States, and other industrialized na
circumstances (e.g., homeless), or where a child skips school or tions forced large groups of youth into schools, where natu
otherwise refuses to attend school (Kearney, 2001). rally some were absent. Absenteeism was initially seen as symp
The phenomenon whereby youth are kept home from tomatic of juvenile delinquency, but today the problem is seen
school by their parents is often referred to as school withdrawal. as more complex and as having various etiologies. In addition,
School absenteeism in this fashion may occur for economic absenteeism is often conceptualized as a problem in its own
reasons (e.g., a need to have the child babysit or work for the right or as a symptom of certain child mental disorders (e.g.,
family), to comfort parents during a stressful time, to protect separation anxiety, conduct disorders). The study of absen
the child from potential kidnapping by an estranged spouse teeism today is spread among educators, psychologists, crim
or other relative, to protect the child from other perceived or inal justice specialists, sociologists, and physicians (Kearney,
actual threats at school, to assist a parent who has a psychopatho 2001).
logical condition (e.g., depression, panic disorder), to punish Overall, approximately 5.5 percent of American children
the child for some wrongdoing, to unnecessarily pursue home are absent from school on a particular day, although other stud
schooling, to spite teachers with whom parents disagree, to re ies have found absentee rates of 10-20 percent in various areas
duce parental separation anxiety, and/or to sabotage treatment of the United States and Europe. According to the National
designed to reintroduce a child to school. In other instances, Center of Education Statistics (see nces.ed.gov for updates over
parent-based school withdrawal is based on the need to hide time), which reports on absenteeism rates for the United States,
something from school officials, such as effects of maltreatment, many 8th-, 10th-, and 12th-graders miss at least 1 day of school
malnutrition, a child-based mental disorder, or uncompleted in a given 4-week period (i.e., 55 percent, 60 percent, and 72
schoolwork. percent, respectively, in the year 2000). In addition, many of
The phenomenon whereby children miss school on their these students miss at least five days of school during this time
own for illegitimate reasons refers to school refusal behavior. (i.e., 13.1 percent, 14.1 percent, and 21.4 percent, respectively).
1
Abuse and Maltreatment of Children 2
According to student report, these absences were primarily due Kearney, C. A., & Albano, A. M. (2000). When children rejilseJchool: A cognitive
to illness (mean, 44.2 percent), but also to skipping school behavioral therapy approach-Parent workbook. San Antonio, TX: The Psy
chological Corporation.
(mean, 16.9 percent) and unspecified "other reasons" (mean,
38.9 percent). The percentage of children who skip school tends
to increase with age. Additional Readings for Professionals
In addition, many students reportedly cut classes in a given
Chiland, c., & Young,]. G. (1990). Why children reject school: Views from seven
4-week period (i.e., 11.5,24.5, and 37.0 percent for 8th-, 10th-,
countries. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.
and 12th-graders, respectively). Those who cut three or more
Kearney, C. A., &Albano,A. M. (2000). When children refuse schoo!.' A cognitive
classes during this time tended to be seniors (15.8 percent), behavioral therapy approach-Therapist guide. San Antonio, TX: The Psy
more so than sophomores (9.3 percent) or eighth graders chological Corporation.
(4.0 percent). In general, school absenteeism in the United CHRISTOPHER A. KEARNEY
States tends to be higher for inner-city schools (5.7 percent),
public schools (5.9 percent), high schools (8.0 percent; large
high schools: 9.1 percent), and schools with high percentages
of impoverished students (mean, 7.5 percent).
School absenteeism may become extensive in nature and
eventually lead to school dropout. According to the National Abuse and Maltreatment of
Center for Education Statistics (October, 1999), approximately
Children
5.0 percent of students aged 15-24 years dropped out of grades
10-12 within a previous 12-month period. School dropout
rates tend to be higher for females (5.4 percent), Hispanics Violence against children has existed throughout history in the
(7.8 percent), students in low-income families (11.0 percent), form of socially condoned infanticide, harsh punishment, aban
and Western areas of the United States (7.1 percent). In addi donment, child prostitution, and the use of children for labor,
tion, risk of school dropout increases with age. including slavery and apprenticeships. Although there has been
Many problems are associated with extended school absen a gradual increase over centuries in society's acknowledgment
teeism and school dropout, and these are discussed at greater of children's rights and a few early efforts to protect children
length in the School Refusal entry. However, general problems from inhumane treatment, such as the 1875 formation of the
associated with these phenomena include delinquency, emo New York Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Children,
tional disturbance, economic and social/marital problems, and widespread recognition of child maltreatment as a significant
greater need for psychological assistance. In general, absen social problem primarily occurred during the last half of the
teeism is a significant problem that must be addressed as early twentieth century. This recognition was largely spurred by the
as possible. publication of medical articles describing children with pat
terns of fractures and other physical injuries that appeared to
See also: Anxiety; Bullying; Conduct Disorder; Depression in have been inflicted by caregivers (Ten Bensel, Rheinberger, &
Children and Adolescents; Pain Syndromes: Recurrent; School Radbill, 1997), which became known as the "battered child syn
Refusal; School Violence Prevention drome" (Kempe, Silverman, Steele, Droegemueller, & Silver,
1962). Since that time, laws mandating reporting of child mal
treatment cases have been passed, and child protective services
BIBLIOGRAPHY agencies (CPS) have been established throughout the United
States.
Kearney, C. A. (2001). School refosal behavior in youth: Afonctional approach The broader term child maltreatment encompasses child
to assessment and treatment. Washington, DC: American Psychological physical and sexual abuse, child neglect, and child psychologi
Association.
cal maltreatment. No universal definitions of the various types
Kearney, C. A., & Silverman, W. K. (1996). The evolution and reconciliation
of child maltreatment currently exist, making it difficult ro
of taxonomic strategies for school refusal behavior. Clinical Psychology:
Science and Practice, 3, 339-354. compare results of research studies or accurately estimate the
U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics. prevalence and incidence of different types of child maltreat
(2002). The condition of education, 2002 (NCES 2002-025). Washing ment. Although definitions may vary considerably across dif
ton, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office.
ferent legal jurisdictions and across different professional disci
plines and legal jurisdictions, they generally contain common
Additional Readings for Nonprofessionals core elements.
Kearney, C. A. (2003). Casebook in child behavior disorders. Belmont, CA: Child physical abuse is generally defined as the nonacci
Wadsworth. dental physical injury of a child, and includes bruises, fractures,
3 Abuse and Maltreatment of Children
cuts, welts, and other injuries. Child sexual abuse consists ofs ex for child maltreatment to occur remain undetermined (Myers
ual activity with a child for the gratification of another person, et aI., 2002).
and includes oral, vaginal, or anal penetration, sexual touching,
exposure, and voyeurism. In contrast to physical and sexual
abuse, which involves the commission of abusive acts, child EFFECTS OF CHILD MALTREATMENT
neglect is defined as the failure to provide for the child's ba
sic physical, emotional, medical, mental health, or educational It is clear that children who experience any type of child
needs. Psychological maltreatment involves acts of commission maltreatment, compared with their nonmaltreated peers, are at
and omission and is generally defined as a repeated pattern greater risk for adverse short- and long-term outcomes. How
of caregiver behavior that conveys that children are rejected, ever, considerable diversity in the types ofp roblems attributed to
worthless, unloved, unwanted, or flawed. Psychological mal child maltreatment has been observed, suggesting a lack of uni
treatment includes spurning, terrorizing, isolating, corrupting, form or universal effects. In addition, a substantial percentage of
and denying emotional responsiveness to the child (Myers et aI., children who experience maltreatment appear to be resilient and
2002). may demonstrate few, if any, known problems. The variation in
the type and severity of problems observed in children who have
experienced maltreatment suggests that different characteristics
INCIDENCE of the maltreatment (e.g., severity), child (e.g., coping), or envi
ronment (e.g., a supportive adult) may contribute to children's
In 2000, approximately 3 million reports of suspected adaptation. Developmental models suggest that the timing and
child maltreatment were made to CPS agencies in the United duration of the maltreatment also may playa role, with earlier
States. Of the 879,000 children who were found to be mal and chronic maltreatment having greater adverse effects owing
treated following investigation, 63 percent experienced neglect, to interference with children's ability to complete sequences of
19 percent experienced physical abuse, lO perc~nt experienced developmental tasks (e.g., Myers et aI., 2002). Although the
sexual abuse, and 8 percent were psychologically maltreated. Ap following sections focus on the supposed effects of child mal
proximately 1,200 children died because of child maltreatment treatment from infancy through adolescence, it is important to
(U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Administra remember that many problems appear to persist into adulthood.
tion on Children, Youth, and Families, 2002). Official CPS data
are considered underestimates of the actual occurrence of child
Physical Abuse
maltreatment because many incidents of child maltreatment,
particularly less severe incidents, may never be recognized or In addition to physical injuries and fatalities, physical
reported. In addition, children may experience multiple types abuse has been associated with left hemisphere neurological
of child maltreatment, and this is not always reflected in official impairments that may be associated with impaired language
data. development and limitations in intellectual functioning and
academic performance. Compared with nonmaltreated peers,
physically abused children are at greater risk for aggressive be
ETIOLOGY havior and cognitive patterns and skills deficits associated with
aggressive behavior, such as perceptions of others as hostile and
During the past 35 years, theoretical models regarding the social problem-solving deficits, as well as delinquency, conduct
etiology of child maltreatment have evolved from single-factor disorder, and substance use. Low self-esteem, depression, and
models (e.g., parental psychiatric disorder; poverty) to more anxiety, including posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD), have
elaborate models that incorporate multiple and interacting fac also been documented. Insecure attachments during infancy
tors from various ecological levels, including the individual, and difficulties in peer relationships (e.g., social withdrawal,
family, community, and society. The more recent models at peer rejection) also have been observed (Myers et aI., 2002).
tempt to clarifY the complexity of individual and environmen
tal influences that may contribute to occurrences of child mal
Sexual Abuse
treatment. These models include a variety of risk factors such as
stress associated with poverty and other adverse circumstances, Sexual abuse has been associated with interpersonal prob
distress, family dysfunction and conflict, family isolation, and lems, low self-esteem, depression, and anxiety. Substance abuse,
patterns of cognitive or affective processing that are congruent eating disorders, and behavior problems, such as running away,
with the different types of child maltreatment. Although re have been documented. Symptoms ofPTSD and sexual behav
search has improved the knowledge base of child maltreatment ior problems, although not exclusive to sexual abuse, tend to be
risk factors, the causal factors that are necessary and sufficient observed more frequently in sexually abused children than in
Abuse and Maltreatment of Children 4
other maltreated children. A few studies have documented cog effectiveness of these efforts has not been conducted. Primary
nitive and school problems in sexually abused children (Myers and secondary prevention ptograms for child physical abuse and
et aI., 2002). However, academic difficulties tend ro be less fre child neglect also frequently focus on providing services, such
quently documented in sexually abused children than in other as support, linkage to resources, education, and skill develop
groups of maltreated children, and may be related, at least in ment, to parents. Although some programs, such as nurse home
part, ro symproms (e.g., difficulties with attention) associated visiting models, have resulted in positive changes in parental,
with depression, anxiety, and PTSD. child, and family functioning, the long-term effectiveness of
these programs for preventing child maltreatment, particularly
as programs are disseminated to different communities, has yet
Neglect
to be determined (Myers et al., 2002).
Although less research has been conducted on child neglect In contrast to prevention programs for child physical abuse
than on child physical or sexual abuse, chronic neglect, particu and neglect, which tend to focus on parents, child sexual abuse
larly neglect beginning in infancy and early childhood, may be prevention programs tend to be focused on improving children's
associated with the most adverse outcomes, including greater abilities to protect themselves or respond to abuse after it occurs.
numbers of fatalities and significant cognitive and physical de Programs are frequently school-based and focus on recognition
velopmental delays. Early chronic emotional neglect is related of potential abusers and teaching children safety rules and other
to children's failure to thrive. Language and learning difficulties concepts (e.g., disclosure, reducing self-blame; Davis & Gidycz,
and academic achievement problems have been documented in 2000; Myers et al., 2002). A sophisticated analysis of controlled
children who have experienced neglect. Beginning with insecure evaluations of these programs suggests that the programs are
attachment in infancy, neglect appears to be related to interper effective at increasing children's knowledge and skills use in
sonal ptoblems, particularly social withdrawal and social inad hypothetical abuse situations, particularly when programs con
equacy. In studies comparing children who have experienced sisted of at least four sessions and actively involved children in
no maltreatment, physical abuse, or neglect, neglected children behavioral reht;arsals (Davis & Gidycz, 2000). However, knowl
tended to be more aggressive than nonmaltreated children, but edge and skills gains may be small or occur only with respect
less aggressive than their physically abused peers. Other ptob to specific concepts (Myers et aI., 2002). More important, the
lems observed following neglect have included depression, low degree to which children are able to utilize the knowledge and
self-esteem, substance use, delinquency, and high dtopout rates skills in actual abuse situations to prevent abuse has yet to be
(Hildyard & Wolfe, 2002; Myers et aI., 2002). demonstrated (Davis & Gidycz, 2000).
Psychological Maltreatment
TERTIARY PREVENTION
Because of the difficulties in documenting when caregiver
behaviors constitute psychological maltreatment, psychological
Identification and Reporting
maltreatment as a unique form of child maltreatment has been
studied far less than the other types of child maltreatment. A thorough review of child maltreatment indicators is far
Psychological maltreatment also tends to occur with other forms beyond the scope of this entry, and interested readers should
of maltreatment (e.g., verbal abuse accompanies physical abuse; consult more comprehensive texts (e.g., Myers et aI., 2002) or
denying emotional responsiveness and emotional neglect are seek additional training. In brief, child physical abuse is gen
synonymous), and has been thought to account for much, if not erally identified through injuries that are unusual in their type
most, of the adverse emotional, interpersonal, and behavioral (e.g., oddly shaped), location (e.g., back of the hands), severity
impacts of the other types of maltreatment (Myers et aI., 2002). (e.g., first-degree burns), or frequency (e.g., repeated fractures)
for the child's developmental age. Untreated medical or den
tal conditions, chronic poor hygiene, constant hunger or being
PRIMARY AND SECONDARY PREVENTION underweight, and clothing inappropriate for the weather are
indicators of possible neglect. Visible indicators of sexual abuse
Primary and secondary prevention efforts are directed at may not be present or may only be detected through expert
preventing initial occurrences of child maltreatment in the gen medical examinations. Sexual abuse may be discovered through
eral population and with families determined to be at risk children's disclosures or other suspicious statements or behaviors
of child maltreatment, respectively. Primary prevention efforts or through third-party witnessing of the abuse. Identification
have been directed toward increasing awareness of child mal of psychological maltreatment generally involves evidence of
treatment and changing attitudes and behaviors that may sup chronic negative parental behaviors directed toward the child,
port child maltreatment, but careful research to determine the such as swearing or threatening (Myers et aI., 2002). Abrupt
