Encyclopedia of Russian History

1930 Pages·2004·39.71 MB·English

by  главный редактор R.Millar

ERH-half ttlpg 10,1.qx4 10/6/03 1:45 PM Page i
E N C Y C L O P E D I A O F
R
USSIAN HISTORY
EDITOR IN CHIEF
James R. Millar
George Washington University
SENIOR ASSOCIATE EDITOR
Ann E. Robertson
George Washington University
EDITORIAL
ASSOCIATE EDITORS
BOARD
Daniel H. Kaiser
Grinnell College
Louise McReynolds
University of Hawaii
Donald J. Raleigh
University of North Carolina
Nicholas V. Riasanovsky
University of California, Berkeley
Ronald Grigor Suny
University of Chicago
ADVISORY BOARD
Marianna Tax Choldin
University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign
Gregory L. Freeze
Brandeis University
Paul R. Gregory
University of Houston
Lindsey Hughes
University College London
Paul R. Josephson
Colby College
Janet L. B. Martin
University of Miami
Bruce W. Menning
U.S. Army Command and Staff College
Boris N. Mironov
Russian Academy of Science
Reginald E. Zelnik
University of California, Berkeley
Encyclopedia of Russian History
James R. Millar
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LIBRARY OF CONGRESS CATALOGING-IN-PUBLICATION DATA
Encyclopedia of Russian history / James R. Millar, editor in chief.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 0-02-865693-8 (set hardcover) — ISBN 0-02-865694-6 (v. 1) —
ISBN 0-02-865695-4 (v. 2) — ISBN 0-02-865696-2 (v. 3) — ISBN
0-02-865697-0 (v. 4)
1. Russia—History—Encyclopedias. 2. Soviet
Union—History—Encyclopedias. 3. Russia
(Federation)—History—Encyclopedias. I. Millar, James R., 1936-
DK14.E53 2003
947’.003—dc21 2003014389
This title is also available as an e-book.
ISBN 0-02-865907-4 (set)
Contact your Gale sales representative for ordering information.
Printed in the United States of America
10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
Preface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . vii CONTENTS
Abbreviations and Acronyms . . . . . xiii
List of Articles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xv
List of Contributors . . . . . . . . . . . li
Outline of Contents . . . . . . . . . lxxxi
ENCYCLOPEDIA OF
RUSSIAN HISTORY . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1737
Project Editors
Joe Clements
Shawn Corridor
Editorial Assistants
Ray Abruzzi, Frank Castronova, Jeffrey Galas,
Deirdre Graves, Madeline Harris, Jan Klisz,
Brigham Narins
Imaging
Lezlie Light, Kelly Quin
Cartography
XNR Productions (Madison, Wisconsin)
Copyeditors
Nancy Gratton, Bob Milch, Richard Rothschild,
Diana Senechal
EDITORIAL
Photo Researcher
Marybeth Kavanagh
AND
Caption Writer
PRODUCTION
Ann E. Robertson
STAFF
Proofreaders
Jane Brennan, Shane Davis, Beth Fhaner, John
Krol, Mary Russell, Jennifer Wisinski
Indexer
Laurie Andriot
Art Director
Pamela A. E. Galbreath
Compositor
GGS Information Services (York, Pennsylvania)
Permissions
Margaret A. Chamberlain
Manager, Composition
Mary Beth Trimper
Assistant Manager, Composition
Evi Seoud
Manufacturing
Wendy Blurton
MACMILLAN REFERENCE USA
Director, Publishing Operations
Jill Lectka
Vice President and Publisher
Frank Menchaca
Winston Churchill’s well-known description of
Russia as a “riddle wrapped in a mystery inside an
enigma” has been widely quoted because it has
seemed so apt to Western observers. The Cyrillic
alphabet appears mysterious to the uninitiated, as
does the odd system of dual dates for key histori-
cal events. Russia is huge and geographically re-
mote, with over one hundred ethnic groups and as
many languages. Historically, Russia stood on the
margin of Europe proper, and Russian society ex-
perienced the Renaissance and the Reformation,
which shaped modern Europe, only partially and
belatedly.
Physical distance and prolonged isolation from
Europe would be sufficient to enhance and promote
a distinctive Russian culture. Russians have them-
selves debated whether they are more European, or
more Asian, or instead a unique Slavic civilization
PREFACE
destined to provide the world with a “third” way.
Nikolai Gogol, one of Russia’s earliest and most
original writers, expressed this messianic view in
his novel Dead Souls, where he offered a speeding
troika, a carriage drawn by three horses, as a
metaphor for Russia:
Russia, are you not speeding along like a
fiery matchless troika? Beneath you the road is
smoke, the bridges thunder, and everything is
left far behind. At your passage the onlooker
stops amazed as by a divine miracle. . . . Rus-
sia, where are you flying? Answer me! There is
no answer. The bells are tinkling and filling the
air with their wonderful pealing; the air is torn
and thundering as it turns to wind; everything
on earth comes flying past and, looking askance
at her, other peoples and states move aside and
make way.
The Encyclopedia of Russian History is designed
to help dispel the mystery of Russia. It is the first
encyclopedia in the English language to compre-
hend the entirety of Russian history, from ancient
Rus to the most recent events in post-Soviet Rus-
sia. It is not aimed primarily at specialists in the
area but at general readers, students, and scholars
who are curious about Russia, have historical
events, dates, and persons they wish to explore or
papers to write on the widely varying topics and
individuals contained herein. Contributors include
top scholars in history, Russian studies, military
history, economics, social science, literature, phi-
losophy, music, and art history. The 1,500 entries
have been composed by over 500 scholars from 16
countries. All were instructed to “historize” their
entries, thereby placing them in the larger context
of Russian history. Each entry is signed and fea-
vii
P R E F A C E
tures carefully chosen cross references to related en- only in the United States, but also in Britain, Eu-
tries as well as a bibliography of print and Inter- rope, and Russia. Twenty years ago it would not
net sources as suggested additional readings. The have been possible to produce such a balanced, high
four volumes contain over 300 black and white quality, and comprehensive encyclopedia. The last
maps and photographs illustrating the text, and five decades or so of intensive scholarship have
each volume contains color inserts portraying the greatly increased our knowledge and understand-
beauty and scope of Russian peoples, art, and ar- ing of Russian history.
chitecture, as well as important military and po-
litical pictorials. Entries are arranged alphabetically,
and the first volume includes a topical outline that RUSSIAN HISTORY
organizes articles by broad categories, thereby of- As one views the length and breadth of the Rus-
fering teachers and students alike an informed map sian historical experience certain continuities and
of Russian history. A comprehensive subject index recurring patterns stand out. Autocracy, for ex-
offers yet another entry point for the set, encour- ample, has ancient and strong roots in Russian his-
aging readers to explore the four volumes in greater tory. For most of its history, Russia was led by
depth. all-powerful tsars, such as Peter the Great or
Nicholas I, who served willingly as autocrats,
The encyclopedia is the product of recent schol-
seemingly conscious of the difficulties inherent in
arship. Russian studies began as a significant field
ruling so large and diverse a country. Even those
of study in the United States and Europe only dur-
tsars who sought to modify the autocracy, such
ing the Soviet era. Although a small number of
as Alexander II, who emancipated the serfs, reversed
scholars were active before World War II, particu-
course when confronted with revolutionary or ni-
larly in England, the field began to grow in the
hilist opponents. Soviet communism lapsed into
United States with the onset of the Cold War in the
autocracy under Josef Stalin, who was perhaps the
late 1940s. When the Soviet Union launched the
most complete autocrat since Peter the Great. More
first earth satellite, Sputnik, in 1957, a concern for
recently, Russian President, Vladimir Putin, appears
national security became a driving force for devel-
to be tolerating a drift back toward autocracy in
opment of Russian area studies. All fields grew es-
reaction to the democratic impulses of Mikhail Gor-
pecially rapidly in the 1960s and 1970s, for it was
bachev and Boris Yeltsin. He seems to relish com-
recognized that study of the contemporary Soviet
parison of his rule to that of Peter the Great.
social system would require in-depth knowledge of
the language, history, and culture of Russia. In the With the exception of the years under Soviet
United States, for example, both the federal gov- communism, Orthodoxy has been autocracy’s
ernment and private foundations such as the Ford twin. Historically, the Russian Orthodox Church
Foundation and the Carnegie Endowment funded has successfully resisted attempts to separate
graduate Russian studies on an almost “crash” ba- church and state and has offered support and jus-
sis. Whereas the Russian Institute of Columbia Uni- tification for autocracy in return. Consequently,
versity and the Russian Research Center at Harvard the church and state have not welcomed religious
dominated the field initially, by the end of the diversity or promoted tolerance. Judaism, Catholi-
1960s all major research institutions had Russian cism, and other Christian denominations, Islam,
studies programs and were producing new Ph.D.s and other religious faiths have suffered persecution
in the field. In fact, most of the scholars who have and restrictions over the years. The Soviet era dif-
ever received Ph.D.s in the various fields of Rus- fered only in than all religions were persecuted in
sian history, social science, arts, and so forth, are the name of official atheism. The long-term trend
still active scholars. The field of Russian-Soviet has apparently reasserted itself as the growing
studies now has better coverage and higher qual- strength of the Russian Orthodox Church in the
ity than ever. The 1991 collapse of the Soviet Union post-Soviet years has featured renewed attempts to
ended the ideological constraints that communism exclude religious competition.
had placed on scholarly publication, allowing
scholarship to blossom in post-Soviet Russia as Territorial expansion has characterized the de-
well. Researchers now have unprecedented access velopment of Russia from the earliest days, usu-
to archival and other historical materials—and to ally through warfare and hostile partitions. The
the Russian people as well. The editors and I have Great Northern War brought Russia to the Baltic
been fortunate, therefore, to be able to select as our coast, while the wars of the nineteenth century ex-
contributors—the most outstanding scholars not panded Russia’s power into Central Asia. Expan-
viii E N C Y C L O P E D I A O F R U S S I A N H I S T O R Y
P R E F A C E
sion under the tsars included annexing territories policies have been undercut by an ambiguous
occupied by settled peoples, as in Ukraine, Poland, commitment to democratization and marketiza-
and Finland, and also by nomadic tribes, as in Cen- tion.
tral Asia, and the Caucuses. The outcome of World
War II extended Moscow’s reach into Eastern Eu- These issues, autocracy, Orthodoxy, territorial
rope, and during the Cold War Russia supported expansionism, modernization, and cultural unique-
regimes in Afghanistan, Cuba, and insurgent ness, have appeared, disappeared, and reappeared
movements in Central America and Africa. throughout Russian history. Western and Russian
historians have argued at length about the strength,
The process of empire-building brought more significance, and permanence of these themes, and
than 120 ethnic and national groups under Rus- the articles contained in this encyclopedia explore
sian rule. It was a costly exercise requiring a large these issues as impartially and objectively as pos-
standing army. Russification versus promoting lo- sible.
cal languages and cultures in these territories was
a recurring issue under tsars and commissars alike, There is no question, however, about the unique,
and it remains an issue today in the Russian Fed- unparalleled contributions of Russian culture to
eration. The collapse first of the Soviet empire in art, music, literature, philosophy, and science.
East-Central Europe in 1988–1989 and then of the Where would we be without Glinka, Mussorgsky,
USSR itself in 1991 caused an equivalent contrac- Tchaikovsky, Pushkin, Gogol, Dostoyevsky, Tol-
tion in Moscow’s power and undermined the econ- stoy, Chekhov, Rublev, Mendeleyev, Sakharov and
omy as well. Consequently, although Russia’s the many, many other artists, thinkers, and scien-
leaders have sought to maintain and even increase tists that Russia’s citizens of all nationalities have
influence in what only Russians call the “near produced? The editors and I hope that the reader
abroad,” that is the former republics of the USSR, will use this encyclopedia to sample the richness of
the empire has shrunk to its smallest extent since Russian history and be induced to explore Russian
the eighteenth century, and the Russia Federation’s culture in depth.
influence in its former republics, not to mention
Eastern and Central Europe, has been severely con-
strained by a lack of funds as well as by local na- STRUCTURE AND ORGANIZATION OF
tionalist feelings. THE ENCYCLOPEDIA PROJECT
When Macmillan Reference USA approached me
Successful modernization of Europe has been seeking an editor in chief for a projected Encyclope-
viewed by Russians as either a possible model for dia of Russian History, I realized that if I could per-
Russia’s development or as a threat to her distinc- suade the best scholars in the field to serve as
tive, peculiar social, political and economic institu- Associate Editors and on an Editorial Board, and if
tions. From Russia’s vantagepoint on the periphery we could persuade other top scholars to write
of Europe, to modernize has meant to Westernize, entries, the experience would be educational and
with all the political and economic baggage that highly worthwhile. I also realized that it would
that implies. Periodically, Russia’s leaders have necessarily be a “labor of love” for all involved. Par-
opened the “door” to Europe, as Peter the Great put ticipating scholars would have to believe in the in-
it, only to have it closed or restricted by those who trinsic value of the project. I first approached Dr.
have sought to maintain and foster Russia’s unique Ann Robertson, who was serving as Managing Ed-
civilization and its messianic mission in world his- itor of my journal, Problems of Post-Communism, to
tory. In one form or another there has been a re- see whether she would be willing to contribute her
curring struggle since the time of Peter the Great outstanding editorial skills as well as her expertise
between the Slavophiles and the Westernizers, and in political science to work closely with me as Se-
this was even true during the Soviet era. Lenin and nior Associate Editor on the encyclopedia. Next I
Trotsky and the Old Bolsheviks thought they were approached Professor Nicholas Riasanovsky of Uni-
opening Russia to a global communist system. versity of California at Berkeley. As the leading his-
Stalin closed it tightly and created an autarkic econ- torian of Russia and director of innumerable Ph.D.
omy. Nikita Khrushchev, Gorbachev, and Yeltsin dissertations in the field, Professor Riasanovsky
opened Russia once again to the West, ultimately represented the keystone in the construction of the
with catastrophic consequences for the empire. It editorial committee. I knew that his name would
has been difficult, however, to overcome the pull assure other scholars of the serious academic na-
of the “Russian idea,” and post-Soviet development ture of the project. I was soon able to recruit an
E N C Y C L O P E D I A O F R U S S I A N H I S T O R Y ix
P R E F A C E
awesome set of associate editors: Daniel Kaiser of and culture. As a result, articles in the Encyclope-
Grinnell College, Louise McReynolds of the Univer- dia describe:
sity of Hawaii at Manoa, Donald Raleigh of the
Historical Events
University of North Carolina, and Ronald Suny of
Documents, Declarations, or Treaties
the University of Chicago. With their assistance we
Military Campaigns or Battles
recruited an equally outstanding Advisory Board.
The Arts, Literature, Philosophy, or Science
Below are very brief biographies of the distin- Economic Developments or Strategies
guished members on the Editorial Board: Ethnic Groups
Geographical Regions
Editor in Chief James R. Millar (Ph.D. Cornell
Political or Territorial Units (Cities, Regions, Gov-
University) is professor of economics and interna-
ernment Ministries)
tional affairs at the Institute for European, Rus-
Countries Prominent in Russian History
sian and Eurasian Studies at the George Washington
Government Policies or Programs
University. His primary areas of research are So-
Organizations, Movements, or Political Parties
viet/Russian economic history and economics of
Influential Individuals
the transition.
Basic Terms or Phrases
Daniel H. Kaiser (Ph.D. University of Chicago)
Over the next few months members of the ed-
is professor of history at Grinnell College in Iowa.
itorial board wrote scope statements and identified
His academic specialty is history and family life in
word lengths (ranging from 250 to 5,000 words)
early modern Russia.
for the articles in their segment of the table of con-
Louise McReynolds (Ph.D. University of tents. Our goal was to produce four volumes and
Chicago) is professor of history at the University one million words, a quota we easily could have
of Hawaii. She specializes in Russian intellectual exceeded. After authors were commissioned and as-
history and cultural studies. signments completed, each article was read by the
appropriate member of the Editorial Board and by
Donald J. Raleigh (Ph.D. Indiana University) is
the Editor in Chief for final approval. Macmillan
professor of history at the University of North Car-
Reference staff has edited the entries for clarity,
olina, Chapel Hill. His research specialization is
consistency, and style.
twentieth-century Russian and Soviet history and
the Russian civil war. A number of transliteration systems exist for
presenting Russian proper names and terms in the
Nicholas V. Riasanovsky (D.Phil. Oxford Uni- English language. As the main audience for the en-
versity) is professor emeritus of history at the Uni- cyclopedia is not expected to be familiar with the
versity of California at Berkeley. He is the author Russian language, strict adherence to any one sys-
of A History of Russia (New York: Oxford Univer- tem could appear artificial and intimidating. The
sity Press, 1963, sixth edition, 1999). editors decided to use standard American spelling
of well-known proper names as they would appear
Ann E. Robertson (Ph.D. George Washington
in the New York Times (e.g., Boris Yeltsin, not Boris
University) is managing editor of the journal Prob-
El’tsin). In all other cases transliterations conform
lems of Post-Communism, National Council for
to the conventions established by the U.S. Board on
Eurasian and East European Research. She special-
Geographic Names. Within this system we made a
izes in post-Soviet political science.
few exceptions: ligatures, soft signs, and hard signs
Ronald Grigor Suny (Ph.D. Columbia Univer- are omitted; names ending in “-ii,” “-yi,” or “-yy”
sity, 1968) is professor of political science at the are shortened to “-y”; and names of tsars and saints
University of Chicago. His research specialty is have been Anglicized, as Peter the Great and Saint
comparative politics and Russian history with spe- Basil, not Petr and Vasily. The editors believe that
cial attention to non-Russian peoples. this modified system for transliteration will be
more readable and understandable than the alter-
The editorial board assembled at George Wash-
natives.
ington University in January 2001 to plan the en-
cyclopedia. The topics we identified eventually Dates in Russian history can be somewhat con-
totaled 1,500 entries. We decided to create basic ar- fusing because tsarist Russia continued to use “Old
ticle categories in an attempt to capture the range Style” (O.S.) dates, based on the Julian calendar, up
and scope of over 1,000 years of Russian history to the 1917 Revolution. In 1917 the Julian calen-
x E N C Y C L O P E D I A O F R U S S I A N H I S T O R Y