Table Of ContentEncyclopediaofRaceandRacism,Vol1–Finals/10/5/2007 07:17 Page1
Encyclopedia of Race and Racism
EncyclopediaofRaceandRacism,Vol1–Finals/10/5/2007 07:16 Page3
Encyclopedia of Race and Racism
VOLUME 1
a–f
John Hartwell Moore
EDITORIN CHIEF
EncyclopediaofRaceandRacism,Vol1–Finals/10/5/2007 07:18 Page4
EncyclopediaofRaceandRacism
JohnHartwellMoore,EditorinChief
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Editorial Board
EDITORINCHIEF LeonardLieberman
JohnHartwellMoore DepartmentofSociologyandAnthropology
DepartmentofAnthropology CentralMichiganUniversity
UniversityofFlorida
KennethB.Nunn
LevinCollegeofLaw
ASSOCIATEEDITORS
UniversityofFlorida
RussellL.Adams
DepartmentofAfro-AmericanStudies DeniseSegura
HowardUniversity SociologyDepartment
UniversityofCalifornia—SantaBarbara
GregoryR.Campbell
DepartmentofAnthropology CONSULTINGEDITORS
UniversityofMontana,Missoula J.KeithAkins
SociologyDepartment
PatriciaHillCollins NewMexicoStateUniversity
EmeritusAfricanAmericanStudies
KarenBrodkin
UniversityofCincinnati
AnthropologyDepartment
Sociology
UniversityofCalifornia—LosAngeles
UniversityofMaryland—CollegePark
KevinO.Cokley
AlanGoodman
DepartmentofEducationalPsychologyandCenterfor
DepartmentofNaturalScience
AfricanandAfricanAmericanStudies
HampshireCollege
UniversityofTexas,Austin
AntoinetteT.Jackson FayeHarrison
AnthropologyDepartment DepartmentofAnthropology
UniversityofSouthFlorida UniversityofFlorida
EncyclopediaofRaceandRacism,Vol1–Finals/10/5/2007 07:18 Page7
Editorial and Production Staff
PROJECTEDITORS MichaelJ.O’Neal RIGHTSACQUISITION
MANAGEMENT
RachelKain DaveSalamie
MarkMikula SueRudolph
PROOFREADERS
NicoleWatkins
MardellGlinski-Schultz
StaceyChamberlin
CONTRIBUTINGEDITORS PamelaS.Dear TracieRichardson
DeirdreBlanchfield MelodieMonahan
JasonM.Everett KathyWilson COMPOSITION
DawnM.Sobraski
EviAbou-El-Seoud
INDEXER
AndrewSpecht
LaurieAndriot
MANUFACTURING
EDITORIALTECHNICALSUPPORT
MarkDrouillard PRODUCTDESIGN WendyBlurton
MikeWeaver PamelaA.E.Galbreath
DIRECTOR,NEWPRODUCT
MANUSCRIPTEDITORS IMAGING DEVELOPMENT
JudithClinebell LeithaEtheridge-Sims
He´le`nePotter
JessicaHornikEvans LezlieLight
PeterJaskowiak
PUBLISHER
ChristineKelley GRAPHICART
JohnKrol Pre-PressPMG JayFlynn
EncyclopediaofRaceandRacism,Vol1–Finals/10/5/2007 07:19 Page9
Contents
VOLUME1
Introduction XI
List of Articles XV
Contributors XXIII
Thematic Outline XXXVII
ENCYCLOPEDIAOFRACEANDRACISM
A–F 1
VOLUME2
ENCYCLOPEDIAOFRACEANDRACISM
G–R 1
VOLUME3
ENCYCLOPEDIAOFRACEANDRACISM
S–Z 1
Annotated Filmography 247
List of Primary Sources 265
Primary Sources 267
Index 357
IX
EncyclopediaofRaceandRacism,Vol1–Finals/10/5/2007 07:19 Page11
Introduction
Raceandracismaretwodistinctconceptswhichhaveseparatehistories. Thetermracewas
borrowed by human biologists from general biology, and simply means a local kind or
varietywithinaspecies,especiallyappliedtothosecommonplantsandanimalswhichwereof
interesttoearly naturalists andphilosopherssuch asHerodotus(484–425BCE),Aristotle
(384–322 BCE), Lucretius (99–55 CE) and Albertus Magnus (1193–1280). With the
discoveryofgenesintheearly twentiethcentury,aspecieswasdefined morepreciselyasa
group which shares an inventory of genes, freely exchanging genetic material among
themselves, but not with other species. A race, then, might represent a minor adaptation
tolocalconditionswithin thespecies. Aspeciesofbutterflies,forexample,might include
‘‘races’’ which present different patterns of camouflage on their wings in different parts of
their range where the vegetation and assortment of predators and other butterflies are
different. Arctic races of mammals tend to be whiter than southern varieties, while races
offorestmammalstendtobemoreemphaticallystriped orspottedthanracesofthesame
specieslivingontheplains. Asinglespecies,then,mightconsistofseveralcomponentlocal
races,allofwhicharemutuallyfertilewithoneanother.
Members of the human species are highly variable in appearance, which should be
expected in a species with a wide—in this case world-wide—distribution. For reasons
explained in this encyclopedia, regional populations of humans have adapted themselves to
localconditionsofclimate,nutrition,anddiseases,sothatsomehumangroupsaredarkerin
colorthanothers,sometaller,someshorter,somewithcurlyhair,andsomewithstraighthair.
Thesevariationsinappearanceamonghumanpopulations,seeminglytrivialintheeyes
ofearlyobservers,weresuddenlyseizeduponintheeighteenthandnineteenthcenturiesby
biologists,anthropologists,historiansandevenphilosophers,whoallegedthatthesesuper-
ficialtraitswerefarfromtrivial,butsignifieddeepandprofounddifferencesamonghuman
populations in their psychology, temperament, and even moral structure. And thus the
ideologyofracismwasinvented,thebeliefthathumanraceswerenotjustdifferentfromone
another,butthatsomeweresuperiortoothers. Notsurprisingly,thepersonswhoinvented
racismwerethemselvesmembersoftheracethattheyallegedwassuperior—thewhiterace—
NordicandEuropean.CarolusLinnaeus(1707–1778),JohannBlumenbach(1752–1840),
and Arthur de Gobineau (1816–1882) are usually ‘‘credited’’ with inventing racism, if we
canusethatword,andtheyallegedfurtherthattheirtaxonomyofracismwasnotbasedon
mere opinion but was ‘‘scientific,’’ based on careful methods of observation and analysis.
XI
EncyclopediaofRaceandRacism,Vol1–Finals/10/5/2007 07:19 Page12
INTRODUCTION
Andthusthephrase‘‘scientificracism’’hassurvivedtodescribeafieldofstudywhichisnot
truly scientific,butpretendstobe. Asthereaderwill see inexampleafter example inthis
encyclopedia,theuseofnumbersandstatisticsdoesnotautomaticallymeanthatanassertion
islogicalorcorrectbyscientificstandards.
It is not mere coincidence that racism was invented during the time that tens of
thousands of Africans were being captured, enslaved, and transported in chains to the
Americas to work as field hands and manual workers for European owners. And it is
interesting and important to note that the institution of chattel slavery, in which human
beings were considered as mere property, was put into place before scientific racism was
invented. Chattel slavery in North America was put into law in Virginia in 1640, but
Linnaeus’sSystemaNaturaewasnotpublisheduntil1735,Blumenbach’sNaturalVarietiesof
Mankind in 1775, and Gobineau’s The Inequality of Human Races not until 1853. Thus
racismwaspracticedforaboutonehundredyearsinNorthAmericabeforescientificracism
wasputintoprinttojustifywhatwasalreadyahighlydevelopedinstitution.
Although racism is a recent invention, with its assertions about inherent human
inequality, slavery was a very old institution in the Mediterranean region of the Old
World. Sumeria, Egypt, Greece, and Rome all maintained vast numbers of slaves, which
they had acquired by various means. The Spartans, for example, subdued neighboring
Laconians and forced them into slavery. The Romans captured slaves from Britain to
Carthage,andlikewisecreatedaslave-basedeconomy. Buttheseslaveswerenotmarkedby
theiroutwardphysicalappearance—infact,theirphysiognomywasverymuchlikethatof
theirowners. GreekandRomanslaveshadtowearcollarsordistinctivedresstodifferentiate
themselvesfromothermembersofsociety.
Blacknessinancienttimeswasnotequatedwiththestatusofslave. InRometherewere
prominent black men, like Emperor Septimius Severus, Consul Lusius Quietus, and a
Roman general who became Saint Maurice, the patron saint of medieval chivalry. But
according to Plato, there were invisible, inherent differences among men which led some
to be kings and others to be slaves. Plato tried to capture the essence of the supposed
inequalitiesamongmen(leavingasidehisallegationsaboutfemaleinferiority)inasupposed
dialogue between his teacher Socrates and Socrates’s student Glaucon, included in Plato’s
Republic. Author Stephen Chorover has called this fragment of philosophy ‘‘the most
frighteningdocumentinEuropeanhistory.’’
Thedialogueconsistsinpartofananalogybetweenhumancharacterandmetallurgy.
AccordingtoPlato,althoughallGreeksmightlookalikeonthesurface,theyweredifferent
inside. Somewereessentially‘‘golden’’intheirintelligenceandcharacter,whileotherswere
silver,brass,iron,wood,orlead. Thosewithgoldenspirits,thechildrenofgoldenparents,
weredestinedtobemonarchsor‘‘philosopher-kings.’’ Thosewhowerebrassorironwould
become soldiers, craftsmen and tradesmen, while those who were wood or lead, would be
slaves. The frightening part of this idea is the notion of an invisible inner self, an early
forerunner of the notion of intelligence, and hence of ‘‘intelligence quotient’’ (IQ), which
emerged as the foremost rationale for racism in the twentieth century. Plato is clearly a
forerunneroftheideathathumancharacterandintelligenceareinnate,areinheritedfrom
parentstochildren,andcanbemeasuredbyspecialistssuchasphilosophers,orinmodern
times,bypsychologists.
Thestudyofrace,andofracism,presentlyrequiresatleasttwogeneralandsomewhat
different approaches, one from science and the other from the humanities. It is up to
scientists to test the biological assertions of racist theory—that human groups, regional
populations,‘‘races,’’aresignificantlydifferentfromoneanotherintheirmental,artistic,and
physicalabilities. Thestrugglebetweenracistandantiracistbiologistshasbeencontinuous
since the invention of racism. But itseems that as soon asone racist allegation is refuted,
othersspringforward. Muchofthisencyclopediaisdevotedtoexaminationsofparticular
propositionsandhowtheyhavebeencriticizedinthelastthreehundredyears.
XII ENCYCLOPEDIA OF RACE AND RACISM
EncyclopediaofRaceandRacism,Vol1–Finals/10/5/2007 07:19 Page13
INTRODUCTION
Even if all racist assertions about human inequality are refuted, it remains to explain
how and why these assertions were generated in the first place, and what functions these
beliefsservedinhumansociety. Asthereaderwillseeinthisencyclopedia,theperspective
loosely called ‘‘post-modernism’’ has provided a critical vocabulary for explaining how
opinionsandideologiesare‘‘sociallyconstructed’’or‘‘culturallyconstructed’’inaparticular
timeorplace. Itisnotenoughsimplytorefutethesupposedlyscientificbiologicalassertions
ofracistindividuals;itisalsonecessarytoexplainhowandwhypeoplecametobelievethese
propositions,andwhowaspromotingthem.
Racism isnotmerelyapsychologicaldisorder, then,curable byhearing thebiological
facts. Racismnotonlypoisonsminds,italsolinesthepocketsofcertainwell-placedelites.
American farmers, contractors, store owners, and manufacturers, for example, reap enor-
mous profits from the difference between what they pay workers of color and what they
would have to pay white workers to do the same jobs. In the past, some of the greatest
advancesinhumanrightshavebeenonthoseoccasionswhenracism,byvariousmeans,was
madetobeunprofitable. WhenindustrialcapitalexpandedintotheSouthafterWorldWarII,
forexample,industrialistsdidnotwanttobuildfactorieswithdualfacilitiesforwhitesand
blacks,andsotheyjoinedthestruggleforintegration.
The nearly four hundred articles in this encyclopedia are roughly of two kinds—
biologicalandhistorical. Butmanyarticlesarebothhistoricalandbiological,andoverlap
with one another in the coverage of a particular geographical region, historical figure, or
topic. For example, ‘‘civil rights,’’ ‘‘migration,’’ and ‘‘people of color’’ are mentioned in
severalplaces,indifferentcontexts. Tohelpthereadernavigateamongoverlappingarticles,
wehavelisted‘‘RelatedTopics’’attheendofeacharticle. Eacharticlealsocontainsalistof
suggestedreadingswherethereadercanfindmoreinformationandmorereferencestothe
topicunderdiscussion. Allarticlesaresignedbyauthorswhoareprominentintheirfields.
All of them are well published, and their other books and articles can be found in local
libraries.
Thisprojectbeganin2004withadiscussionamongMacmillaneditorsconcerningthe
need for anew referencesource which would ‘‘fit awide rangeofthe socialsciences,from
historytomulticulturalstudiestosociologyandpsychology,’’butwouldalsobe‘‘appropriate
forthehighschoolcurriculum.’’ Thatis,thepublisherwantedakindof‘‘one-stop’’reference
for students in high school and college to lead them to other inter-related sources in the
subjectsofraceandracism.
TherefollowedatelephonecallfromeditorialdirectorHe´le`nePottertome,askingme
toserveaseditorinchiefoftheproposedvolumesonthebasisofmyresearchinboththe
scientificandhumanistsidesofraceandracismandbasedonthedistributionoftopicsIhad
includedintheon-linecoursesyllabuswhichhadguidedmyteachingofacollegeclasscalled
‘‘RaceandRacism’’formorethantwentyyears.
The next step was the selection of a board of editors, who would solicit articles for
particularfieldsofscholarship,theirownspecialties,andeditthemanuscriptstheysolicited.
OurfirstmeetingwasatMacmillanofficesinNewYorkCityonSeptember2–4,2004. The
editorsareasfollows,alongwiththeirinstitutionalaffiliations,andprimaryresponsibilities
aseditors.
RussellAdams,DepartmentofAfro-AmericanStudies,HowardUniversity,historyof
Americanslavery,anti-slavery,andcivilrights.
J.KeithAkins,SociologyDepartment,NewMexicoStateUniversity,racistorganizations,
criminology.
KarenBrodkin,AnthropologyDepartment,UniversityofCalifornia—LosAngeles,
ethnicity,socialtheory,feminism.
GregoryR.Campbell,DepartmentofAnthropology,UniversityofMontana,Missoula,
NativeAmericans,nationalminorities.
ENCYCLOPEDIA OF RACE AND RACISM XIII
EncyclopediaofRaceandRacism,Vol1–Finals/10/5/2007 07:19 Page14
INTRODUCTION
KevinCokley,DepartmentofEducationalPsychologyandCenterforAfricanandAfrican
AmericanStudies,UniversityofTexas,Austin.
PatriciaHillCollins,EmeritusAfricanAmericanStudies,UniversityofCincinnati,
Sociology,UniversityofMaryland–CollegePark,feminism,sociology,historyofracism.
AlanGoodman,DepartmentofNaturalScience,HampshireCollege,biological
anthropology,sports.
FayeHarrison,DepartmentofAnthropology,UniversityofFlorida,politics,feminism,
ethnicity.
AntoinetteT.Jackson,AnthropologyDepartment,UniversityofSouthFlorida,slavery,
plantationcommunities,socio-economicstructures;heritagestudies.
LeonardLieberman,DepartmentofSociologyandAnthropology,CentralMichigan
University,humanvariation,historyofscientificracism.
KennethB.Nunn,LevinCollegeofLaw,UniversityofFlorida,raceandlaw,constitutional
law,civilrights.
DeniseSegura,SociologyDepartment,UniversityofCalifornia—SantaBarbara,
Hispanictopics,feminism.
Wemustnoteherethepassingofourdearfriend,LenLieberman,duringthecourseof
editing this encyclopedia. Len was a notable figure in the struggle against racism, among
otherthingsservingaseditorofthememorialvolumeforAshleyMontagu,entitledRaceand
OtherMisadventures(1996,withLarryReynolds).
Our project editors at Macmillan have been Nicole Watkins, Rachel Kain, and Mark
Mikula. He´le`ne Potter has not only served as our editorial director, but also as our
intellectualguide,whenweneededone.
JohnHartwellMoore
DepartmentofAnthropology,UniversityofFlorida
August15,2007
SUGGESTED READING
Barkan,Elazar.1992.TheRetreatofScientificRacism,CambridgeUniversityPress.
Chorover,Stephen.1979.FromGenesistoGenocide.Cambridge,MA:MITPress.
Finley,Moses.1980.AncientSlaveryandModernIdeology.NewYork:Penguin.
Frederickson,GeorgeM.2002,Racism,AShortHistory.Princeton,NJ:PrincetonUniversityPress.
Lucretius.1977.TheNatureofThings.NewYork:Norton.
Meltzer,Milton.1993.Slavery:AWorldHistory.Chicago:DeCapo.
Plato.1952.‘‘TheRepublic,BookII,’’pp.310–323inPlato,‘‘GreatBooksoftheWesternWorld’’series,vol.7,
editedbyMortimerJ.Adler,Chicago:Benton.
Snowdon,FrankM.1971.BlacksinAntiquity,Cambridge,MA:BelknapPress.
XIV ENCYCLOPEDIA OF RACE AND RACISM
