Table Of ContentEncyclopedia of Nanotechnology
Bharat Bhushan
Editor
Encyclopedia of
Nanotechnology
With1976Figuresand124Tables
Editor
ProfessorBharatBhushan
OhioEminentScholarand
TheHowardD.WinbiglerProfessor,
Director,NanoprobeLaboratoryforBio-&Nanotechnology
andBiomimetics(NLB2)
OhioStateUniversity
201W.19thAvenue
Columbus,Ohio,43210-1142
USA
ISBN978-90-481-9750-7 ISBN 978-90-481-9751-4(eBook)
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Preface
On December 29, 1959, at the California Institute of Technology, Nobel Laureate
RichardP.FeynmangaveaspeechattheAnnualmeetingoftheAmericanPhysical
Societythathasbecomeoneofthetwentieth-centuryclassicsciencelectures,titled
“There’s Plenty of Room at the Bottom.” He presented a technological vision of
extrememiniaturizationin1959,severalyearsbeforetheword“chip”becamepartof
the lexicon. He spoke about the problem ofmanipulating and controlling things on
a small scale. Extrapolating from known physical laws, Feynman envisioned
a technology using the ultimate toolbox of nature, building nanoobjects atom by
atomormoleculebymolecule.Sincethe1980s,manyinventionsanddiscoveriesin
thefabricationofnanoobjectshavebeentestamenttohisvision.Inrecognitionofthis
reality, National Science and Technology Council (NSTC) of the White House
createdtheInteragencyWorkingGrouponNanoscience,EngineeringandTechnol-
ogy(IWGN)in1998.InaJanuary2000speechatthesameinstitute,formerPresident
W.J.Clintonspokeabouttheexcitingpromiseof“nanotechnology”andtheimpor-
tance of expanding research in nanoscale science and technology, more broadly.
Laterthatmonth,heannouncedinhisStateoftheUnionAddressanambitious$497
millionfederal,multiagencyNationalNanotechnologyInitiative(NNI)inthefiscal
year 2001 budget, and made the NNI a top science and technology priority. The
objectiveofthisinitiativewastoformabroad-basedcoalitioninwhichtheacademe,
theprivatesector,andlocal,state,andfederalgovernmentsworktogethertopushthe
envelope of nanoscience and nanoengineering to reap nanotechnology’s potential
socialandeconomicbenefits.
ThefundingintheUSAhascontinuedtoincrease.InJanuary2003,theUSsenate
introducedabilltoestablishaNationalNanotechnologyProgram.OnDecember3,
2003,PresidentGeorgeW.Bushsignedintolawthe 21stCenturyNanotechnology
ResearchandDevelopmentAct.Thelegislationputintolawprogramsandactivities
supported by the (NNI). The bill gave nanotechnology a permanent home in the
federal government and authorized $3.7 billion to be spent in the 4-year period
beginning in October 2005, for nanotechnology initiatives at five federal agencies.
Thefundshaveprovidedgrantstoresearchers,coordinatedR&Dacrossfivefederal
agencies(NationalScienceFoundation(NSF),DepartmentofEnergy(DOE),NASA,
NationalInstituteofStandardsandTechnology(NIST),andEnvironmentalProtec-
tion Agency (EPA)), established interdisciplinary research centers, and accelerated
technology transfer into the private sector. In addition, the Department of Defense
(DOD),HomelandSecurity,AgricultureandJustice,aswellastheNationalInstitutes
ofHealth(NIH)alsofundlargeR&Dactivities.Theycurrentlyaccountformorethan
one-thirdofthefederalbudgetfornanotechnology.
v
vi Preface
TheEuropeanUnion(EU)madenanosciencesandnanotechnologiesapriorityin
the Sixth Framework Program (FP6) in 2002 for the period 2003–2006. They had
dedicatedsmallfundsinFP4andFP5before.FP6wastailoredtohelpbetterstructure
EuropeanresearchandtocopewiththestrategicobjectivessetoutinLisbonin2000.
Japan identified nanotechnology as one of its main research priorities in 2001. The
fundinglevelsincreasedsharplyfrom$400millionin2001toaround$950millionin
2004.In2003,SouthKoreaembarkedupona10-yearprogramwitharound$2billion
ofpublicfunding,andTaiwanhascommittedaround$600millionofpublicfunding
over6years.SingaporeandChinaarealsoinvestingonalargescale.Russiaiswell
fundedaswell.
Nanotechnology literally means any technology done on a nanoscale that has
applicationsintherealworld.Nanotechnologyencompassesproductionandapplica-
tionofphysical,chemical,andbiologicalsystemsatscales,rangingfromindividual
atomsormoleculestosubmicrondimensions,aswellastheintegrationoftheresulting
nanostructures into larger systems. Nanotechnology is likely to have a profound
impact on oureconomy andsociety inthe early twenty-first century, comparableto
thatofsemiconductortechnology,informationtechnology,orcellularandmolecular
biology. Science and technology research in nanotechnology is leading to break-
throughs in areas such as materials and manufacturing, nanoelectronics, medicine
andhealthcare,energy,biotechnology,informationtechnology,andnationalsecurity.
Itiswidelyfeltthatnanotechnologywillbethenextindustrialrevolution.
There is an increasing need for a multidisciplinary, system-oriented approach
toward designing and manufacturing micro/nanodevices which function reliably.
This can only be achieved through the cross-fertilization of ideas from different
disciplinesandthesystematicflowofinformationandpeopleamongresearchgroups.
Reliabilityisacriticaltechnologyformanymicro-andnanosystemsandnanostruc-
turedmaterials.Thefirsteditionofabroad-basedHandbookofNanotechnologyfrom
SpringerwaspublishedinApril2004,thesecondeditionin2007,andthethirdedition
in 2010. It presents an overview of nanomaterial synthesis, micro/nanofabrication,
micro- and nanocomponents and systems, scanning probe microscopy, reliability
issues(includingnanotribologyandnanomechanics)fornanotechnology,andvarious
industrialincludingbiomedicalapplications.
The field of nanotechnology is getting a strong foothold. It attracts people from
variousdisciplinesincludingscienceandengineering.Giventheexplosivegrowthin
nanoscience and nanotechnology, this Encyclopedia of Nanotechnology is being
launchedwithessayswrittenbyexpertsinthefieldfromacademiaandindustry.
Theobjectiveofthisencyclopediaistointroducealargenumberofterms,devices,
andprocesses.Foreachentry,abriefdescriptionisprovidedbyexpertsinthefield.
Theentrieshavebeenwrittenbyalargenumberofinternationallyrecognizedexperts
inthefield,fromacademia,nationalresearchlabs,andindustry.
TheEncyclopediaofNanotechnologyisexpectedtoprovideacomprehensiveand
multidisciplinary reference to the many fields relevant to the general field of nano-
technology. The encyclopedia focuses on engineering and applications with some
coverage of the science of nanotechnology. It aims to be a comprehensive and
genuinelyinternationalreferenceworkandisaimedatgraduatestudents,researchers,
andpractitioners.
ThedevelopmentoftheencyclopediawasundertakenbyanEditorialBoard,who
wereresponsibleforthefocusandqualityofcontributions,andanAdvisoryBoard,
whowereresponsibleforadvisingabouttheselectionoftopics.
Preface vii
The print version of the encyclopedia contains four volumes with a total of 325
entries and about 3068 pages. The encyclopedia is also available online. Editors
expect to update it periodically. The editor-in-chief and all the editors thank
a large number of authors for making contributions to this major reference work.
We also thank the referees who meticulously read the entries and made their
recommendations.
Powell,Ohio BharatBhushan
USA
May2012
Biography
BharatBhushan
OhioEminentScholar
TheHowardD.WinbiglerProfessor,Director
NanoprobeLaboratoryforBio-&Nanotechnol-
ogyandBiomimetics(NLB2)
OhioStateUniversity
201W.19thAvenue
Columbus,Ohio,43210-1142
USA
[email protected]
Dr.BharatBhushanreceivedanM.S.inmechanicalengineeringfromtheMassachu-
settsInstituteofTechnologyin1971;anM.S.inmechanicsandaPh.D.inmechanical
engineering from the University of Colorado at Boulder in 1973 and 1976, respec-
tively;anMBAfromRensselaerPolytechnicInstituteatTroy,NY,in1980;aDoctor
Technicae from the University of Trondheim at Trondheim, Norway, in 1990;
a Doctor of Technical Sciences from the Warsaw University of Technology at
Warsaw,Poland, in1996; andDoctor Honouris Causa fromthe National Academy
ofSciencesatGomel,Belarus,in2000andUniversityofKragujevac,Serbia,in2011.
Heisaregisteredprofessionalengineer.HeispresentlyanOhioEminentScholarand
TheHowardD.WinbiglerProfessorintheCollegeofEngineeringandtheDirectorof
the Nanoprobe Laboratory for Bio- & Nanotechnology and Biomimetics (NLB2)
at the Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio. His research interests include fun-
damentalstudieswithafocusonscanningprobetechniquesintheinterdisciplinary
areas of bio/nanotribology, bio/nanomechanics, and bio/nanomaterials characteri-
zation and applications to bio/nanotechnology and biomimetics. He is an interna-
tionally recognized expert of bio/nanotribology and bio/nanomechanics using
scanningprobemicroscopyandisoneofthemostprolificauthors.Heisconsidered
by some a pioneer of the tribology and mechanics of magnetic storage devices.
Hehasauthored8scientificbooks,approximately90handbookchapters,700sci-
entific papers (h-index – 57; ISI Highly Cited in Materials Science, since 2007;
ISITop5%CitedAuthorsforJournalsinChemistrysince2011),and60technical
reports.Hehasalsoeditedmorethan50booksandholds17USandforeignpatents.
He is coeditor of Springer NanoScience and Technology Series and coeditor of
MicrosystemTechnologies.Hehasgivenmorethan400invitedpresentationsonsix
continents and more than 200 keynote/plenary addresses at major international
conferences.
ix
x Biography
Dr. Bhushan is an accomplished organizer. He organized the 1st Symposium on
TribologyandMechanicsofMagneticStorageSystemsin1984andthe1stInterna-
tional Symposium on Advances in Information Storage Systems in 1990, both of
whicharenowheldannually.HeisthefounderofanASMEInformationStorageand
ProcessingSystemsDivisionfoundedin1993andservedasthefoundingchairduring
theperiod1993–1998.HisbiographyhasbeenlistedinovertwodozenWho’sWho
books including Who’s Who in the World and has received more than two dozen
awards for his contributions to science and technology from professional societies,
industry, and US government agencies. He is also the recipient of various interna-
tionalfellowshipsincludingtheAlexandervonHumboldtResearchPrizeforSenior
Scientists,MaxPlanckFoundationResearchAwardforOutstandingForeignScien-
tists, and the Fulbright Senior Scholar Award. He is a foreign member of the
InternationalAcademyofEngineering(Russia),ByelorussianAcademyofEngineer-
ingandTechnology,andtheAcademyofTriboengineeringofUkraine;anhonorary
memberoftheSocietyofTribologistsofBelarus;afellowofASME,IEEE,STLE,
andtheNewYorkAcademyofSciences;andamemberofASEE,SigmaXi,andTau
BetaPi.
Dr. Bhushan has previously worked for Mechanical Technology Inc., Latham,
NY;SKFIndustriesInc.,KingofPrussia,PA;IBM,Tucson,AZ;andIBMAlmaden
Research Center, San Jose, CA. He has held visiting professorship at University of
CaliforniaatBerkeley;UniversityofCambridge,UK;TechnicalUniversityVienna,
Austria;UniversityofParis,Orsay;ETH,Zurich;andEPFL,Lausanne.Heiscurrently
a visiting professor at KFUPM, Saudi Arabia; Harbin Inst., China; University of
Kragujevac,Serbia,andUniversityofSouthampton,UK.
