Table Of ContentE N C Y C L O P E D I A
OF
F C
o o d and o lo r
A
d d it iv e s
G eorge A. Burdock, Ph.D.
VOLUME II
F - O
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-PublicationD ata
Burdock, George A.
Encyclopedia of food and color additives / George A. Burdock.
p. cm.
Includes indexes.
ISBN 0-8493-9416-3 (set: alk. paper). --ISBN 0-8493-9412-0 (v. 1
: alk. paper). --ISBN 0-8493-9413-9 (v. 2 : alk. paper). --ISBN
0-8493-9414-7 (v. 3 : alk. paper)
l. Food additives--Encyclopedias. 2. Coloring matter in food-
-Encyclopedias. I. Title.
TX553.A3B87 1996
664'.06'03--dc20 96-42689
CIP
Library of Congress Card Number 96-42689
Cover design: Denise Craig
Typography: Roy Barnhill
F
FARNESOL
Synonyms Dihydrofamesol;
2.6.10-Dodecatrien-l-ol, 3,7,11-trimethyl- (8CI)(9CI);
Farnesol; Famesyl alcohol;
2.6.10-Trimethyl-2,6,10-dodecatrien-12-ol;
3.7.11-Trimethyl-2,6,10-dodecatrienol;
3,7,11 -Trimethyl-2,6,10-dodecatrien-1 -ol.
Current CAS number 4602-84-0
Description Farnesol has a characteristic flowery odor.
Empirical formula C15H260
Specifications Physical/chemical characteristics1
(The physical constants vary slightly, depending on the source and
the method of preparation.)
Appearance: Colorless liquid.
Assay: 97% min.
Molecular weight: 222.36.
Boiling point: 131 - 132°C at 3 mmHg (from petitgrain); 124
- 125°C at 2.2 mmHg (from Tolu balsam); 118 - 120°C at
2 mmHg (from cabreuva); 118 - 120°C at 2 mmHg (from ger-
anyl acetone).
Specific gravity: 0.887 - 0.889 at 25°C (0.8880 from petit
grain); (0.8883 at 20°C from Tolu balsam); (0.8886 from
cabreuva); (0.8886 from geranyl acetone).
Refractive index: 1.4890 - 1.4910 at 20°C (1.4891 from petit
grain); (1.4892 at 20°C from Tolu balsam); (1.4894 from
cabreuva); (1.48906 from geranyl acetone).
Solubility: 1:3 in 70% alcohol; almost soluble in water; soluble
in most organic solvents.
Natural sources Reported found in apricot, orange peel oil, bitter orange peel oil,
grapefruit juice, high-bush blueberry, strawberry jam, clove bud,
ginger, pork (cured, raw), beer, malt whiskey and scented rice
(cooked).2 The presence of this terpene alcohol has also been
reported in more than 30 essential oils; the levels are generally
low (0.5 - 1.0%) with the exception of cabreuva, which contains
up to 2.5% farnesol, and the distillate from flowers of Oxystigma
buccholtzii Harms., which contains up to 18% farnesol; among
1 Burdock, G.A. (ed.) (1995). Fenaroli’s Handbook of Flavor Ingredients. Third edition. CRC Press. Boca Raton, FL.
2 Maarse, H., Visscher, C.A., Willemsens, L.C. and Boelens, M.H. (eds.) (1993). Volatile compounds in food.
Qualitative and quantitative data. Supplement 4 and cumulative index. TNO Nutrition and Food Research. Zeist,
The Netherlands.
1059
1060_______________________________________________________________________________________ FP&C
the essential oils containing farnesol are lemongrass, Ceylon
citronella, cananga, ambrette seeds, ylang-ylang, Acacia famesi-
ana, Peru balsam, palmarosa, tuberose, and others.1
Functional use in foods Flavoring ingredient.
GRAS status FEMA GRAS No. 2478 (Refer to FenarolVs Handbook of Flavor
Ingredients (1995) for use levels reviewed by the FEMA Expert
Panel.)
Regulatory citations
FOOD PERMITTED USE
CITATION NUMBER/CFR PART CATEGORY FUNCTIONALITY LIMITS
21 CFR 172.515 Food additives permitted for direct No restrictions (12) Flavoring agents CGMP
addition to food for human consumption. Subpart F - and adjuvants
Flavoring agents and related substances. Synthetic
flavoring substances and adjuvants.
FD&C
Description2 Color additives may be added to food, drugs, cosmetics (i.e.,
FD & C) and certain medical devices for the purpose of imparting
color. The three categories of color additives are: (1) “Straight
colors” (color additives that have not been mixed or chemically
reacted with any other substance); (2) lakes (color additives formed
by chemically reacting a straight color with water-insoluble sub
stances); and (3) mixtures (color additives formed by mixing a
color additive with one or more other color additives or noncolored
substances, without chemical reaction).
Section 7 of the Food and Drugs Act of 1906 (Pub. L. 59-384)
prohibited the use of poisonous or deleterious colors in confec
tionery and the coloring or staining of food to conceal damage or
inferiority. In 1907, the agency, then part of the Department of
Agriculture, issued Food Inspection Decision 76 (Ref. 10), which
contains a list of seven straight colors approved for use in food.
Between 1907 and 1939, the agency expanded the list of straight
colors approved for use in food from 7 to 15. These colors were
known as “coal tar colors” because they were synthesized mainly
from substances obtained from coal tar. However, prior to 1939,
the agency’s list of acceptable colors did not include lakes of coal
tar colors because such lakes were not used in food. Also, prior
to 1938, the government program for batch analysis and certifica
tion of colors was voluntary.
The Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act of 1938 (21 U.S.C.
301 et seq. (the act)) (Pub. L. 75-717) required FDA to list coal
1 Burdock, G.A. (ed.) (1995). Fenaroli’s Handbook of Flavor Ingredients. Third edition. CRC Press. Boca Raton, FL.
2 Adapted from Federal Register 61(43):8371-8417, 1996.
FD&C 1061
tar colors “harmless and suitable” for use in foods, drugs, and
cosmetics, and to certify all batches of listed colors, including
lakes. The agency issued regulations under the act listing lakes for
food use, as well as for drug and cosmetic use, and establishing
conditions for certification of batches of lakes (4 FR 1922, May
9, 1939; 4 FR 3931, September 16, 1939; and 5 FR 1138, March
23, 1940). The agency issued the first certificate for a lake under
the act on May 11, 1939 (Ref. 11).
The initial listing of lakes for food use under the act restricted
their use to coloring shell eggs (egg dyeing) (5 FR 1138). In 1959,
at the request of industry, the agency expanded the uses of lakes
prepared from FD & C straight colors to encompass general use
in foods (24 FR 3818, May 13, 1959; and 24 FR 5302, June 30,
1959).
The 1960 amendments amended the act by defining the term “color
additive” (section 201(t) (21 U.S.C. 321(t))) for the first time and
restricting the use of color additives in or on food, drugs, cosmet
ics, or the human body to those listed in IDA regulations. (The
Medical Device Amendments of 1976 (Pub. L. 94-295) extended
these restrictions to the use of color additives in certain medical
devices.) As amended, the act provides that a food (section 402(c)
(21 U.S.C. 342(c))), drug or device (section 501(a)(4) (21 U.S.C.
351(a)(4))), or cosmetic, other than a coal tar hair dye (section
601(e) (21 U.S.C. 361(e))), is adulterated if it is, bears, or contains
an unsafe color additive. Section 721 (formerly section 706) of
the amended act (21 U.S.C. 379e) provides for the listing of safe
and suitable color additives for use in foods, drugs, cosmetics, and
medical devices; it prohibits the listing of a color additive for a
proposed use unless data establish that such use will be safe.
Section 721 of the act also continues the requirement for certifi
cation of batches of color additives, with or without diluents, to
determine whether each batch conforms to the purity and identity
specifications in the applicable listing regulation. However, the
amendments allow FDA to exempt color additives from batch
certification if certification is unnecessary to protect the public health.
Section 203 of the 1960 amendments also provided for the provi
sional listing of color additives that were commercially established
when the 1960 amendments were enacted, pending completion of
scientific investigations necessary to determine their safety under
the new standard established by the 1960 amendments. The pur
pose of section 203 was to allow the use of such color additives
on an interim basis, to the extent consistent with the public health.
Section 203 directed the agency to recognize as provisionally listed
the following color additives: (1) Any color additive which, on the
day preceding the enactment date, was listed and certifiable for
any use or uses and for which a batch or batches had been certified
for such use or uses prior to the enactment date; (2) any color
additive which was commercially used or sold prior to the enact
ment date for any use or uses on any food, drug, or cosmetic, but
1062 FD & C BLUE NO. 1
was not required to be listed under the act; (3) synthetic beta
carotene. The provisional listing was to apply only to the use or
uses to which the certification applied, or for which the color
additive had been commercially used or sold. Under the authority
of the 1960 amendments, in the Federal Register of October 12,
1960 (25 FR 9759), the agency provisionally listed those color
additives, including lakes, covered by section 203. This listing,
originally codified as 21 CFR 8.501 and later recodified as Sec.
81.1 (21 CFR 81.1) (42 FR 15665, March 22, 1977), included
many of the coal tar colors (including lakes) that had been previ
ously listed.
In the Federal Register of December 27, 1963 (28 FR 14311), the
agency determined that batch certification was unnecessary to
ensure the safety of most color additives derived from plant, ani
mal, or mineral sources, and designated these color additives as
exempt from certification. However, the agency determined that
batch certification was necessary to ensure the safety of most color
additives, including lakes, derived principally from coal and petro
leum sources, and designated those colors as subject to certifica
tion. Currently, the color additives exempt from batch certification
and the permanently listed color additives subject to batch certi
fication are listed in parts 73 and 74 (21 CFR parts 73 and 74),
respectively.
Since the establishment of the provisional list in 1960, the agency
has gradually removed color additives from the list either by per
manent listing or by termination of listing due to lack of interest
by industry or due to safety concerns prompted by the agency’s
reviews. At this time, only lakes remain provisionally listed in
parts 81 and 82.
After the enactment of the act in 1938, FDA established the des
ignation “FD & C” to identify color additives listed for use in
foods, drugs, and cosmetics; the designation “D&C” to identify
color additives listed for general use in drugs and cosmetics, but
not foods; and the designation “Ext. D&C” to identify color addi
tives listed for use only in externally applied drugs and cosmetics
(4 FR 1922 at 1923). These designations are still part of the names
of certified color additives. However, the uses of some straight
colors (and consequently also of their lakes) were restricted when
they were permanently listed, based on the safety reviews con
ducted by the agency under the 1960 amendments. Consequently,
the designations “FD & C” or “D&C” in the name of a certified
color additive can no longer be relied upon to accurately describe
the approved uses of the color additive.
FD & C BLUE NO. 1
Synonyms Acid blue 9; Acid blue 9 ammonium salt; Acid sky blue A;
Acilan turquoise blue AE; AF Blue No 1; A.F. Blue No. 1;
Aizen brilliant blue FCF; Alphazurine; Alphazurine (indicator);
Alphazurine FG; Alphazurine F G; Alphazurine FGND;
FD & C BLUE NO. 1 1063
Ammonium,ethyl(4-(p-(ethyl)(m-sulfobenzyl)amino)-a/Jp^a-
(o-sulfophenyl)benzy-lidene)-2,5-cyclohexadien-
l-ylidene)(m-sulfobenzyl)-, hydroxide, inner salt,
diammonium salt;
Benzenemethanaminium, n-ethyl-n-
(4-((4-(ethyl((3-sulfophenyl)methyl)amino)phenyl)
(2-sulfophenyl)methylene)-2,5-cyclohexadien-l-ylidene)-
3-sulfo-, hydroxide, inner salt, diammonium salt (9CI);
Blue brilliant Fcf; Blue 1; 1206 Blue; 11388 Blue;
Blue dye number 1 food additive; Brilliant blue;
Brilliant blue FCF,diammonium salt; Brilliant blue lake;
Bucacid azure blue; Calcocid blue EG; Calcocid blue 2G;
Calcocid blue 2 G; Canacert brilliant blue FCF; Cl Acid blue 9;
C.I. Acid blue 9; C.I. Acid blue 9; Cl 671; C.I. 671; C.I 42090;
Cl 42090 (Ammonium salt); Cl Acid blue 9, diammonium salt;
C.I. Acid blue 9, diammonium salt (8CI); Cl Direct brown 78;
C.I. Direct brown 78; Cl Direct brown 78, diammonium salt;
C.I. Direct brown 78, diammonium salt; Cl Food blue 2;
C.I. Food blue 2; D and C Blue 1; D&C Blue No 1;
D and C Blue No 1; D & C Blue No. 4; D and C Blue No 4;
Diammonio(ethyl)(4-((4-(ethyl(3-sulphonatobenzyl)amino)
phenyl)(2- sulphonatophenyl)methylene)cyclohexa-
2,5-dien-l-ylidene)(3-sulpho-natobenzyl)ammonium;
Disulphine lake blue EG; Dolkwal brilliant blue; E;
Edicol supra blue E6; Erioglaucin; Erioglaucine; Erioglaucine A;
Erioglaucine (biological stain); Erioglaucine E; Eriosky blue; FD
& C Blue 1; FD and C Blue No. 1; FD & C Blue No.l;
FD & C Blue No. 1; F D+C Blue 1; Fenazo blue XR;
Food blue 1; Food blue No. 1; Hexacol brilliant blue A;
Hidacid azure blue; H.K. Formula No. K. 7117; Kiton blue AR;
Kiton pure blue L; Maple brilliant blue FCF; Neptune blue BRA;
Neptune blue BRA concentration; Neptune blue WF;
Patent blue AE; Patent blue 2Y; Peacock blue X 1756;
Schultz No 770; Tortrazine c extra; Triantine light brown 3RN;
Usacert blue No. 1; Xylene blue VSG.
Current CAS number 2650-18-2
Other CAS number(s) 1334-07-2; 29519-65-1; 37307-55-4; 37307-56-5; 37307-78-1;
51609-24-6; 55819-29-9; 86924-52-9; 37307-56-5
Description FD & C Blue No. 1 is principally the disodium salt of ethyl[4-[p-
[ethyl(m-sulfobenzyl)amino]-a-(<9-sulfophenyl)benzylidene]-
2,5-cyclohexadien-l-ylidene](m-sulfobenzyl) ammonium hydrox
ide inner salt.
The colorant is a dark purple to bronze powder that dissolves in
water to give a solution green-blue at neutrality, green in weak
acid, and yellow in stronger acid. Addition of base to its neutral
solution produces a violet color only on boiling. When dissolved
1064 FD & C BLUE NO. 1
in concentrated sulfuric acid, it yields a yellow solution that turns
green when diluted with water. It is soluble in 95% ethanol.
FD & C Blue No. 1 is used in beverages and beverage powders,
dairy products, bakery products, dessert powders, confectionery
products, condiments, icings, syrups, jams, jellies, marmalades,
liqueurs, and extracts. It is also used for coloring ingested drugs.1
Empirical formula C37H36 N2O9S3 2H3N
Specifications Identification: A freshly prepared aqueous solution containing
10 mg/L exhibits absorbance intensities (A) and wavelength max
ima as follows: at pH 7, A = 1.11 at 630 nm; at pH 1, A = 0.95 at
629 nm, and A = 0.2 at 410 nm; and at pH 13, A = 1.29 at 630 nm,
and A = 0.15 at 408 nm.
Arsenic (as As): Not more than 3 mg/kg.
Chromium (as Cr): Not more than 0.005%.
Ether extracts (combined): Not more than 0.4%.
Lead: Not more than 10 mg/kg.
Leuco base: Not more than 5.0%.
Subsidiary colors: Not more than 6.0%, combined, of isomeric
disodium salts of ethyl[4-[/?-[ethyl(/?-sulfobenzyl)amino]-a-(0-
sulfophenyl)benzylidene] -2,5-cy clohexadien-1 -ylidene] (p-sul-
fobenzyl) ammonium hydroxide inner salt and ethyl [4-{p-
[ethyl(o-sulfobenzyl)amino]-a-(o-sulfophenyl)benzylidene]-
2,5-cyclohexadien-l-ylidene](o-sulfobenzyl) ammonium hydrox
ide inner salt.
Total color: Not less than 85.0%.
Uncombined intermediates and products of side reaction: o-,
m-, and /?-sulfobenzaldehydes: Not more than 1.5%, combined;
N-ethyl, N-(m-sulfobenzyl)sulfanilic acid: Not more than 0.3%.
Volatile matter at 135°, chloride, and sulfate (as sodium salts):
Not more than 15.0% in combination.
Water-insoluble matter: Not more than 0.2%.2
Functional use in foods Color.
Regulatory notes Color additive mixtures for food use (including dietary supple
ments) made with this color may contain only those diluents that
are suitable and that are listed in part 73 of this chapter (§73.1
Diluents in color additive mixtures for food use exempt from
certification).
All batches of this color must be certified in accordance with
regulations in part 80 of this chapter.
1 International Life Sciences Institute (1991). Catalog of Food Colors. International Life Sciences Institute,
Washington, DC. Used with permission.
2 National Academy of Sciences (1994). Draft monograph on FD & C blue no. 1 for inclusion into the Food
Chemicals Codex. Submitted to the USFDA in partial fulfillment of contract number 223-92-2250. October 31,
1994.
FD & C BLUE NO. 2 1065
Regulatory citations
FOOD PERMITTED USE
CITATION NUMBER/CFR PART CATEGORY FUNCTIONALITY LIMITS
21 CFR 74.101 Listing of color additives subject to No restrictions (4) Colors and CGMP
certification. Subpart A - Foods. coloring adjuncts
FD & C BLUE NO. 2
Synonyms Acid blue W; Acid blue 74; Acid leather blue IC;
A.F. Blue No. 2; Airedale blue IN; Amacid brilliant blue;
Aniline carmine powder; Atul indigo carmine;
(*fefta2,2'-Biindoline)-5,5'-disulfonic acid, S^'-dioxo-,
disodium salt (8CI);
(delta(sup 2,2')-Biindoline)-5,5/-disulfonic acid, 3,3'-dioxo-,
disodium salt;
Blue 2; 1311 Blue; L Blue Z 5010; 12070 Blue;
Bucacid indigotine B; Canacert indigo carmine;
Carmine blue (biological stain); Cilefa blue R; C.I. Acid blue 74;
C.I. Food blue 1; C.I. Food blue 1, disodium salt;
C.I. Natural blue 2; Cl 73015; C.I. 73015; C.I. 75781;
Disodium 3r3,-dioxo-(</e/ta2,2'-biindoline)-5,5'-disulfonate;
Disodium 5,5'-(2-(l,3-dihydro-3-oxo-2H-indazol-2-ylidene)-
l,2-dihydro-3H-indol-3-one)disulphonate;
Disodium 5,5'-indigodisulfonate;
Disodium indigo-5,5-disulfonate;
Disodium 5,5'-indigotin disulfonate;
Disodium salt of l-indigotin-S,S'-disulfonic acid;
Dolkwal indigo carmine; FD and C Blue 2;
FD and C Blue No. 2; FD & C Blue 2; FD & C Blue No. 2;
FD & C Blue No. 2; FD+C Blue 2; Food blue 1;
Food blue No. 1; Food blue 2; Grape blue A; HD Indigo carmine;
HD Indigo carmine supra; Hexacert blue No. 2;
Hexacol indigo carmine supra; Indigo carmine;
Indigo carmine A; Indigo carmine AC; Indigo carmine BP;
Indigo carmine X; Indigo carmine (biological stain);
Indigo carmine conc. FQ; Indigo carmine disodium salt;
Indigo carmine powder; Indigo disulfonate (biological stain);
Indigo extract; Indigotin I; Indigotindisulfonate sodium;
5,5'-Indigotindisulfonic acid;
Indigotin-5,5'-disulfonic acid disodium salt; Indigotine;
Indigotine B; Indigotine I; Indigotine LA; Indigotine N;
Indigotine blue LZ;
Indigotine conc. powder, indigotine extra pure A;
Indigotine disodium salt; Indigotine extra pure A; Indigotine lake;
Indocarmine F;
lH-Indole-5-sulfonic acid, 2-(l,3-dihydro-3-oxo-5-sulfo-2H-
indol-2-ylidene)-2,3-dihydro-3-ox- o-, disodium salt (9CI);
Intense blue; Maple indigo carmine; Sachsischblau;
Sodium indigo-5,5'-bisulfonate; Sodium indigotindisulfonate;
Sodium 5,5'-indigodisulfonate; Sodium 5,5'-indigotidisulfonate;
