Encyclopaedia Britannica Almanac 2008

978 Pages·2007·46.36 MB·English

by  Encyclopaedia Britannica

Fromtheknowledgeleadersince1768
E N C Y C L O P Æ D I A
Britannica
A L M A N A C
2008
E N C Y C L O P Æ D I A
Britannica®
JacobE.Safra,ChairmanoftheBoard
JorgeAguilar-Cauz,President
Chicago·London·NewDelhi·Paris·Seoul·Sydney·Taipei·Tokyo
© 2008 Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.
EDITORIAL ARTANDCOMPOSITION ENCYCLOPÆDIABRITANNICA,INC.
ThadKing KathyNakamura
SusanaDarwin StevenN.Kapusta JacobE.Safra
CharlesP.Trumbull CarolA.Gaines ChairmanoftheBoard
PatriciaBauer ChristineMcCabe
CharlesCegielski CateNichols JorgeAguilar-Cauz
RobertM.Lewis ThomasJ.Spanos President
KennethPletcher
MichaelRay EDITORIALLIBRARY MichaelRoss
BarbaraSchreiber HenryBolzon SeniorVicePresident,
MelindaC.Shepherd LarsMahinske CorporateDevelopment
KarenJacobsSparks
AnitaWolff INFORMATIONMANAGEMENT DaleH.Hoiberg
Carmen-MariaHetrea SeniorVicePresident
PRODUCTIONCONTROL SheilaVasich andEditor
MarilynL.Barton MansurAbdullah
RosalineJacksonKeys
WORLDDATA MANUFACTURING Manager,Almanacand
StephenNeher KimGerber WorldData
MaryKasprzak
MEDIAASSETMANAGEMENT MichaelLevy
CARTOGRAPHY JeannineDeubel ExecutiveEditor,CoreEditorial
MichaelNutter
MarshaMackenzie
COPY ManagingEditorand
SylviaWallace DirectorofProduction
JohnM.Cunningham
GlennJenne
SusanSchumer
©2008BYENCYCLOPÆDIABRITANNICA,INC.
Photos(frontcoverlefttoright):MarioSecchi/Scoopt/GettyImages;DavidFurst/AFP/GettyImages;Thomas
Coex/AFP/GettyImages;StuartFranklin/Bongarts/GettyImages
CopyrightUnderInternationalCopyrightUnion
AllRightsReservedUnderInternationalandUniversalCopyrightConventionsbyEncyclopædiaBritannica,Inc.
ISBN-13:978-1-59339-414-1. InternationalStandardSerialNumber:1540-8868.
Nopartofthisworkmaybereproducedorutilizedinanyformorbyanymeans,electronicormechanical,includ-
ingphotocopying,recording,orbyanyinformationstorageandretrievalsystem,withoutpermissioninwriting
fromthepublisher.
ENCYCLOPÆDIABRITANNICAALMANAC2008
Britannica.commaybeaccessedontheInternetathttp://www.britannica.com.Forinformationongroupand
bulksales,[email protected].
(TrademarkReg.U.S.Pat.Off.)PrintedinU.S.A.
© 2008 Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.
TABLEOFCONTENTS 3
YearinReview CivilEngineering.......................180
LifeonEarth..........................188
Features
Animals.............................188
OneDayinIraq.........................5
Plants..............................189
byMichaelDuffy,BrianBennet,and
Geology.............................191
MarkKukis,TIME
PreservingNature......................199
TheVirtualWorldofOnlineGaming........7
byMichaelRay Health................................200
TheUS2006MidtermElections...........8 DietandExercise.....................207
byDavidC.Beckwith
OutsourcingWar:TheSurgeinPrivate
MilitaryFirms........................9 World
byPeterSaracino
China:DawnofaNewDynasty...........217
Chronology,July2006–June2007 byMichaelElliott,TIME
MonthbyMonth.......................11
CountriesoftheWorld..................219
Disasters,July2006–June2007
MonthbyMonth.......................30
FLAGS...............................481–486
MAPS...............................487–496
People
RulersandRegimes....................564
TheTIME100,2007.....................35
Populations...........................578
CelebritiesandNewsmakers..............37
LanguagesoftheWorld.................580
Obituaries..............................77
Scholarship...........................581
Religion ..............................583
Awards
The2007AnnualMegacensusof
TIME’sTop100Films....................89 Religions............................584
TIME’sPersonoftheYear,1927–2006.....90 Law&Crime ..........................590
TheNobelPrizes........................91 MilitaryAffairs.........................593
SpecialAchievementAwards.............104
UnitedStates
ScienceHonors........................110
AmericanHistory:Jamestownat400......595
byRichardBrookhiserforTIME
Nature,Science,Medicine,&Technology
History...............................597
Environment:GlobalWarming............117 UnitedStatesChronology..............597
byJeffreyKluger,TIME ImportantDocumentsinUSHistory.....600
Time.................................119 Government...........................612
TheUniverse..........................127 ThePresidency ......................612
TheSupremeCourt...................640
Cosmogony..........................127
TheCongress........................643
Constellations.......................129
TheSenate .......................643
AstronomicalPhenomenafor2008 .....135
TheHouseofRepresentatives........646
MeasurementsandNumbers ............154
MilitaryAffairs.........................654
AppliedScience........................165
Population............................661
Communications.......................166
TheStatesandOtherAreas..............669
AerospaceTechnology ..................167
StateGovernment......................698
SpaceExploration....................167
Cities.................................703
SpaceExplorationFirsts...............171
LawandCrime.........................705
AirTravel..............................172
Society...............................712
Meteorology...........................174
Family..............................712
GeologicDisasters .....................178 Education...........................715
© 2008 Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.
4 TABLEOFCONTENTS
Business Sport
WorldEconomy:India,Inc................717 Golf:WomenontheVerge...............799
byMichaelElliottandAlexPerry,TIME byKristinaDell,TIME
USEconomy...........................719 Golf:TeeingUpaNewGame.............800
byKristinaDell,TIME
Energy..............................721
SportingCodesforCountries.............801
TravelandTourism .....................722
TheOlympicGames ....................803
Employment...........................725
SpecialOlympics.......................865
ConsumerPrices.......................735
AutomobileRacing .....................866
USBudget............................737
Baseball..............................868
USTaxes..............................740
Basketball............................872
BilliardGames.........................877
Arts,Entertainment,&Leisure
Bowling...............................878
Theater:Girls,Girls,Girls................743 Chess................................880
byRichardZoglin,TIME
Cricket ...............................880
Cinema:BoysWhoLikeToys.............744
Curling...............................881
byRebeccaWintersKeegan,TIME
Cycling...............................882
MotionPictures........................745
Football ..............................884
AcademyAwards.....................745
US.................................885
Television.............................762
Canadian...........................891
EmmyAwards .......................762 Australian...........................892
Rugby..............................892
Theater...............................765
AssociationFootball(Soccer)...........893
TonyAwards.........................765
Golf..................................896
EncyclopædiaBritannica’s
25NotableUSTheaterCompanies....768 HorseRacing..........................903
Music................................768 IceHockey............................912
GrammyAwards......................768 Marathon.............................915
EncyclopædiaBritannica’s
Rodeo................................918
25World-ClassOrchestras...........774
EncyclopædiaBritannica’s Skiing................................918
Top25OperaCompanies............775
SledDogRacing.......................923
Pageants.............................775
Swimming ............................924
ArtsandLettersAwards.................777
Tennis................................929
PulitzerPrizes .......................777
Track&Field..........................944
Architecture...........................797
Volleyball.............................952
SpecialHonors ........................798
WeightLifting..........................953
INDEX....................................954
© 2008 Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.
One Day in Iraq
byMichaelDuffy,BrianBennet,andMarkKukis,TIME
A
sofIndependenceDay2007,morethan3,500 pleasesendEvans,whohadneverhelpedafamily
AmericanshaddiedinIraqsincethewarbegan grievebefore.ScherryisthefirstofEvans’recruitsto
in2003.That’stwoperday,aratethathasin- die in Iraq. “You find yourself lying awake at night
creasedwiththe“surge”of30,000UStroopsinto looking for some magical words that can help the
Baghdadthatbeganearlyin2006.ThenumberofUS family ease their pain, and there are no magical
casualties increased since the buildup began, as wordstobehad,”saysEvans.“Youcan’tbringtheir
Pres.GeorgeW.Bushpredictedtheywould.Sohas sonbackforthem.”
thefrequencyofgrievoussingledayswhenmultiple
servicememberswerekilled.Onesuchdaywas16 AMARINEFATHER’SLAMENT
April2007:sixAmericansdiedinIraqonthatday. DeLaTorre,Jesse
Herearethestoriesoffiveofthem. Age29.Lancecorporal,USMarineCorps.2ndBat-
talion, 7th Marine Regiment, 1st Marine Division,
THEBROTHERWHODIDN’TCOMEHOME 1stMarineExpeditionaryForce
Scherry,Daniel Hostilefire,Anbarprovince
Age20.Lancecorporal,USMarineCorps.1stBat-
talion,2ndMarineRegiment,2ndMarineDivision, AurelianoDeLaTorredidn’twanthissonJesseto
2ndMarineExpeditionaryForce join the Marines. “It was his own idea,” Aureliano
Nonhostileaccident,Anbarprovince says.“Ididn’tagree,buttherewasnothingIcould
do.”AsthewarsinIraqandAfghanistanunfolded,
Leaving home in Rocky River OH was hard for Jessegrewdeterminedtogetinvolvedashemulled
DanielScherry.Hismotherandtwosisterswerein hisfutureandthestateoftheworldfromhishome-
tearswhenhisMarineCorpsrecruiter,StaffSgt.Eric townofAuroraIL.Hetoldhisfatherthatsomeone
Evans,wenttopickhimupforbasictraininginthe hadtodosomethingtostopal-Qaeda.
spring of 2006. Soon Scherry was crying too. “His Jessewasagiftedsaxophoneplayer;untilhejoined
sisters were his world,” says Evans. Their names, themilitary,jazzhadbeenoneofhismainpassions.
KacieandLauren,weretattooedontheinsideofhis Buthealwaysseemedinsearchofalargerpurpose.
arms.ToconsoleScherry,EvanstoldtheyoungMa- Whenhewasabout12,heaskedhisfathertotake
rinetherecruiterwouldbethereforthesisterswhile himtoanondenominationalBible-studygroup.Jesse
hewasaway. hadfounditonhisownandwantedtogobecause
Scherry’smotherMariannehadtriedtotalkhimout hewascuriousaboutreligion.Fortwoyearsfather
ofjoiningtheMarines,atleastuntilhefinishedcol- andsonwenttogethertoBiblediscussions,where
lege.In2004,whentheMarineswereassaultingFal- Jessewaseasilytheyoungestperson.Jesse’sinitial
lujahandsufferingheavycasualties,sheshowedthe curiositygrewintoadeeplyfeltsenseofspirituality
newspapertoheronlyson.Look,shesaid,theyare thatstayedwithhimthroughouthislife.Hecarrieda
so young-—just 19 and 20-—and they’re dying. But Bibletoschool.
ScherryrepliedthattheMarineswhodiedtheremust Aftergraduatingfromhighschoolin1998,Jesse
have been proud to do so for their country. “He putjazzasideandpursuedcomputerengineeringin
lookedattheMarinesasbeingthebest,andthat’s community-collegeclassesinAurora,wherehealso
whathewantedtobe—thebest,”saysMarianne.“He workedataninsurancecompany.Butheabandoned
knewitwasthehardestbootcamp.Heknewitwas thecollegepathin2005toenlistintheMarines.The
the toughest training. That’s what he wanted. He decisiontookhisfamilybysurprise.Jessetoldhisfa-
wantedtopushhimself.” theronlyafterhehadarrivedinCaliforniafortraining.
Scherry’s mentor in the Marines was Evans, who Soonafter,JesseleftforIraq,wherewordfromhim
feltclosertoScherrythantootherrecruitshehad camerarely.
signed up; he reminded Evans of himself as an JessewenthomeoverChristmasin2006fortwo
eageryoungrecruit.EvanstalkedwithScherryfora weeksofleave.Aboutfiveweeksafterreturningto
longtimethatfirstnight,assuringhimhewasem- duty in Anbar province, he sent his father a short
barking on a noble calling. And Evans stayed in messagesayinghewasOK.Aurelianoneverheard
touchwithScherryashewentthroughtraining,of- from his son again. At 10 AM on 16 April, four
feringcongratulationswhenScherrybecameamor- Marinesarrivedathishouse.WhenAurelianoasked
tarman, the same job Evans held when he first iftheywerethereabouthisson,theMarinesdidn’t
joinedtheMarineCorps. speak, but after a moment, they explained: Jesse
ScherrywasdeployedtoAnbarprovinceinMarch haddiedinIraqaboutsevenhoursearlier,killedby
2007.Hediedafteronlyaboutamonththere.The hostilefire.
Marines who broke the news to his mother said “Ourliveswillneverbethesame,”saysAureliano,
therehadbeenanaccident.Scherryhadbeenriding whose grief is colored by the anger he feels over
intheturretofaHumveewhenhereachedtogeta losing a son to a war he does not support. “Now
low-hanging wire out of the way. Electric current that my son is gone, there is a vacancy in Iraq.
killedhim. Maybethepresidentwouldliketosendoneofhis
InthedaysafterScherry’sdeath,Marianneasked daughtersovertheretocontinuetofightinJesse’s
theMarineswhohadcometoherhouseiftheycould place.”
© 2008 Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.
6 YEARINREVIEW
“HEWANTEDTOFIGHT” neversentit,asthearmyeventuallylethimin.His
Blue,Shaun motherPatriciafoundtheletteramonghisthingsa
Age25.1stlieutenant,USMarineCorps.2ndBattal- fewdaysafterhedied.
ion,7thMarineRegiment,1stMarineDivision,1st Likemanyotherparentsofservicemembers,she
MarineExpeditionaryForce hadtriedherbesttopersuadehimnottojoin.“You
Hostilefire,Anbarprovince don’twanttogooverthere,”sherememberstelling
him.Genevieidolizedhismother.Helistedherashis
Before he left for Iraq, Shaun Blue never talked “biggestinspiration”inhis2003senioryearbook.But
aboutthewarwithhisfriends.Hedidn’tneedto.“We joiningthemilitarywasonethinghehadtodoonhis
allknewwhereeachotherstood,”saysMikeBell,a own,withorwithouthismother’sblessing.Beforehe
fellowMarinewhoattendedtheUniversityofSouth- leftforbasictraining,Patriciarememberstellinghim,
ernCaliforniawithBlue.Theywerejuniorswhenthe “Isupportyou100%.”
warbegan.“Allofuswantedtogo.Allofuswanted HismotherhastriedtomakesenseofGenevie’s
tobethere.” death by holding tight to the notion that he was
Bluehadconsidereddroppingoutofcollegetoen- watchingoverhisfellowsoldiersinhislastmoments.
listintheMarinesratherthanfinishingschooland Itwasafamiliarrole.“HewasrealbigonSuperman,”
enteringasanofficer.Hewasavoraciousreader,a shesays.GenevietattooedaredandgoldSonhis
philosophymajorwhoseinterestsrangedfromhard chest.Whenhisparentsseparatedafewyearsago,
sciencestoRomanarchitecture.(Hismothersayshe Geneviestayedwithhismomand“tookoverthefa-
askedforacopyofMobyDickasaChristmaspresent therlyrole,”sherecalls,helpingthemworkthrough
insecondgrade.)Incollegehewasasseriousabout their problems and get back together. That’s why,
conditioninghisbodyashewashismind.Heplayed whenhedied,shewantedhimtobeburiedinArling-
pickupbasketballinsomeofLA’stoughestneighbor- tonNationalCemetery.“That’swhereheroesgo,”she
hoods.Once,lateatnight,afterdrinkingbeerwith says.“Hewasmyhero.”
Bell,BluetoldBellhewasgoingforarun.Hedonned
aflakjacketforaddedweightandranthedarkened ANEWFAMILY’SLIFECUTSHORT
LA streets alone for hours, finally returning to the DeLeon,Mario
houseshortlybeforedawn. Age26.Sergeant,USArmy.1stBattalion,18thReg-
BluesetoffforhisfirstdeploymenttoIraqon4Jul iment,2ndBrigadeCombatTeam,1stInfantryDivi-
2005. He joined the Marine campaign in Anbar sion
province,leadingaplatoonintheFallujaharea.Even Sniperfire,Baghdad
inthedesertreachesofIraq,Bluefoundwaystocall
BellandhisyoungersisterAmyBlue,whowasliving When Mario De Leon returned home to the rolling
inIrelandatthetime.“Thosephonecallsfromhim hills of Petaluma CA for the last time, dozens of
werethehighlightsofmydays,”saysAmy.“Hearing well-wishers, firefighters, and police officers lined
himacrossallthosemiles,itwaslikehewasright the streets and stood on overpasses to see the
therewithme.”Hewaskilledhalfwaythroughasec- blackhearsegoby.Agroupofteenagegirlshelda
ondtourinAnbar,whileridinginthepassengerseat signthatreadWELOVEYOU.ForDeLeon’smother
of a Humvee that was hit by a roadside bomb. Barbara,theshowofrespectwasinpartasalvefor
“Twenty-fiveyearsissoshort,”hissistersays,“butI an old wound. De Leon’s father had served two
amveryluckythatIcouldcallhimabrotheranda tours in Vietnam. When he returned to the US,
truebestfriendforthatlong.” “they treated him like crap,” she says. The motor-
“Hewantedtofight,”saysBellofhisfallenfriend. cadesandhand-paintedsignsthathonoredMario’s
“Hereally,reallydid.Hecouldn’twait.” death were in stark contrast to the reprehensible
way returning soldiers were treated in the last un-
AKNACKFORWATCHINGOUTFOROTHERS popularwar.“Americaistryingtomakeupforthat,”
Genevie,Aaron shesays.
Age22.Privatefirstclass,USArmy.1stSquadron, Mariowasshywhenitcametopraiseandgratitude.
4thCavalryRegiment,4thInfantryBrigadeCombat Strangersstoppedhimandsaidthankyou,buthe
Team,1stInfantryDivision didn’tknowhowtoreact.Barbarahadworriedthat
IEDblast,Baghdad shewouldlosehimtogangsanddrugsinhighschool.
But he cleaned up and enlisted in the army after
Asagunnerinascoutunit,AaronGenevieoften graduation.Itwasn’tlongbeforeDeLeonwasshoul-
rodethroughBaghdadpoppedupoutofthetopofhis deringaheavySAW(squadautomaticweapon)gun
Humvee,manningabelt-fedautomaticmachinegun. on his broad 1.9-m (6-ft 2-in) frame through the
Gunners are the eyes and ears of the driver, con- ruggedpassesofAfghanistan.
stantlyscanningthehorizonforthreats.InBaghdad’s Whenhefinishedhistourin2002,heleftthearmy
congestedstreets,theyarealsotrafficcops—waving and used the GI Bill to enroll at a local junior col-
carsoutoftheway,shoutingatdriverswhogettoo lege. That’s where he charmed his wife Erika with
close. That’s what Genevie was doing the day he hishandsomeface,hisgoofygrinandaboyishob-
died,tellinghisdrivertomaneuveraroundanIraqi session with ThunderCats cartoons and X-Men
national-police checkpoint when a roadside bomb comic books. But by 2006, with a new baby boy
wentoffandkilledhiminstantly. namedKeoniinthehouse,hedecidedtoreenlist.
Ascoutinthe1stInfantryDivisionofFortRileyKS, He hoped a career in the military would provide a
Geneviehadtofighttogetintothearmy.Militarydoc- stableincomeforhisfamily.HearrivedinBaghdad
tors told him he couldn’t enlist with his history of inOctober2007andwaspromotedtosergeantand
asthmaandshoulderproblems.ButGenevieknewhe squadleader.
could handle the training. He videotaped himself Twoweekslater,MarioDeLeoncameintoanenemy
doingrigorous20-minuteworkoutstoshowthathe sniper’ssightsinBaghdadwhileleadingapatrol.His
wouldn’tslowdownhisunit.Heevendraftedaletter squadfightsonwithouthim.“Iwishtohell,”Barbara
toPresidentBushaskinghimtointervene.Genevie says,“they’dgetthemhome.”
© 2008 Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.
YEARINREVIEW 7
The Virtual World of Online Gaming
byMichaelRay
V
irtualworldsgeneratedbillionsofrealdollarsin (1999).Growthfortheseearlygameswasrelatively
2006–07 as millions of players around the slowbutsteadywiththeexceptionofLineage,theex-
worldfought,bought,crafted,andsoldinava- plosive popularity of which was mainly due to the
riety of online environments. The most populous, earlyandwidespreadavailabilityofhigh-speedInter-
Blizzard Entertainment’s World of Warcraft, drew netconnectionsinSouthKorea.Thispopularitydid
sevenmillionsubscribers(withmorethanfivemillion notcomewithoutaprice,however.AnumberofKo-
in China alone). This total represented more than reanplayersdiedofexhaustionaftermarathongam-
half of the massively multiplayer online game ingsessions,anda2005SouthKoreangovernment
(MMOG)communityin2006,anditbroughtinmore surveyshowedthatmorethanhalfamillionKoreans
than$1billioninretailsalesandsubscriptionfees sufferedfrom“Internetaddiction.”Gamecompanies
for Blizzard. MMOGs differed from traditional PC fundeddozensofprivatecounselingcentersforad-
gamesinanumberofimportantways.First,Internet dicted gamers in an effort to forestall legislation,
connectivitywasaprerequisiteforallMMOGs,asthe suchasthatpassedbyChinain2005,thatwould
gamescouldbeplayedonlyafteroneloggedinto forcedesignerstoimposein-gamepenaltiesforplay-
the server that hosted the game world (popular erswhospentmorethanthreeconsecutivehourson-
MMOGsrequireddozensofsuchserverstoaccom- line.
modatetheirlargerplayerbases).Second,thesocial BythetimeWorldofWarcraftdebutedinNovember
aspectofinteractingwiththousandsofplayersworld- 2004, the global gaming market was ready for a
widefrequentlyovershadowedthegamecontentit- change.WiththenotableexceptionsofEVEOnline,a
self.A2006studyfoundthatalmostathirdoffe- gameofinterstellarcorporateintrigue,andthesu-
male players and nearly 10% of male players had perhero-themedCityofHeroes,themarketwassatu-
dated someone they met rated with “swords and
in a game. Third, most “ sorcery” fare. World of
MMOGs operated on a Many groups were eager Warcraft’s attention to
subscriptionbasis,charg- humorandteamplayand
ingamonthlyfeeinaddi- to target one of the itsshallowlearningcurve
tiontotheinitialpurchase brought in millions of ca-
price of the game soft- fastest-growing commu- sual gamers who had
ware. Some companies never before tried an
offered frequent down- nities on the Internet— MMOG. This widespread
loadable “patches” of success brought its own
new game content to Second Life’s popula- challenges for Blizzard,
makethesemonthlyfees however, when the com-
morepalatabletoplayers, tion topped 8 million in pany temporarily sus-
whileothersofferedtheir pended the account of a
games free of charge to July 2007, and its num- transsexual player over
players who were willing freedomofspeechissues.
totolerateastreamofin- bers were increasing by While that incident
gameadvertisements. ” seemedtohavebeenthe
Though World of War- some 10,000 a day. resultofaterriblemiscom-
craft and other MMOGs munication on Blizzard’s
utilized the advanced part, it did open a dia-
graphics and high-end logueonthenatureofon-
processing power typical lineworlds.Weretheylike
ofthecurrentgenerationofPCgames,onlinegaming privateclubs,wherethemanagementcouldrestrict
haditsrootsinsomeoftheearliestcomputingtech- bothmembershipandspeech?Ordidtheyfallunder
nologies.Bythelate1970s,manyuniversitiesinthe the scope of a public accommodation, where dis-
USwerelinkedbyARPANET,aprecursortotheInter- criminationwasexpresslyprohibitedbyUSlaw?
net.ThestructureofARPANETalloweduserstocon- Anotherissuethatgamepublishershadtofacewas
necttheircomputerstoacentralmainframeandin- theriseofsecondaryeconomiesoutsidetheirgame
teract in what was close to real time. In 1980 worlds.UltimaOnlinedesignerswerethefirsttoob-
ARPANETwaslinkedtotheUniversityofEssex,Col- servethisphenomenonatworkwhenacastleintheir
chester,England,wheretwoundergraduatestudents gameworldsoldforseveralthousanddollarsonthe
hadwrittenatext-basedfantasyadventuregamethat onlineauctionsiteeBay.Thiswasthebeginningofa
theycalledMUD,or“multiuserdungeon.”Whenthe marketvaluedatmorethan$1billionin2006.Play-
first outside users connected to MUD through ersspenthoursearningin-gamewealth,huntingfor
ARPANET,onlinegamingwasborn.Soonotherpro- rare weapons, and gaining power and prestige for
grammers expanded on the original MUD design, their characters so that the fruits of their virtual
addinggraphicflourishes,chatfunctions,andplayer laborscouldbeexchangedforrealcash.Thebuyer
groups(orguilds).Thesebasicfeatures,aswellas andsellerwouldagreeonapurchaseprice;thefunds
thefantasysetting,carriedoverintothenextgenera- would be transferred electronically; and the two
tion of online games, which were the first true wouldthenmeetinthegameworldtocompletethe
MMOGs. transaction. Some Chinese companies turned this
ThefirstwaveofMMOGsincludedsuchgamesas intoseriousbusiness,employinghundredsof“gold
UltimaOnline(debutedin1997),theSouthKorean farmers,”whoplayedthegameinanefforttohoard
blockbuster Lineage (1998), and Sony’s EverQuest resources that would be sold to players in South
© 2008 Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.
8 YEARINREVIEW
KoreaortheUnitedStates.MostMMOGcompanies dollars at a rate of approximately 250:1. Players
soughttocontrolthisbehaviorbybanningtheac- could then purchase in-game items, customize
counts of suspected gold farmers (Blizzard closed thoseitemsbyusing3D-imagingsoftware,andre-
18,000 such accounts in October–December sellthemataprofit.Forsome,craftingitemsand
2005).Sonyco-optedthesecondarymarketwhenit managingvirtualrealestateinSecondLifebecame
launched Station Exchange, a service designed to a “first life” business. A German couple, acting
facilitatethebuyingandsellingofvirtualgoodsinits throughtheirin-gamepersonaAnsheChung,earned
EverQuest games. Thus far, however, Linden Lab almost$200,000in2006bydevelopingandmar-
wastheonlycompanytodesignagamearoundavir- keting property within Second Life. Many groups
tualeconomy.ThatgamewasSecondLife. wereeagertotargetoneofthefastest-growingcom-
InmanywayssimilartoTheSims,thetop-selling munitiesontheInternet—SecondLife’spopulation
PCgameofalltime,SecondLifewaslessagame topped8millioninJuly2007,anditsnumberswere
andmoreavirtualworld.ThoughTheSimsOnline increasingbysome10,000aday.StarwoodHotels
wasarelativefailurewhenitlaunchedinlate2002, builtaresortonavirtualdesertisland;BBCRadio1
SecondLifebecamearunawaysuccess.Thediffer- createdaconcertvenueforonlinemusicfestivals;
encewasintheeconomicmodelsadoptedbythe Sweden opened a virtual embassy; and Virginia
twogames.WhereasTheSimsOnlinewascriticized politicianMarkWarnerconductedatown-hallinter-
foritslackofanycleargoalsforplayers,SecondLife viewwithaSecondLifereporter.ThecityofVancou-
offered players the opportunity to use the game verestablishedapolicedepartmentcompletewith
worldandtheirowntalentstomakeasmuchmoney customuniformsandbadges,asarecruitingtoolfor
astheypossiblycould.Foramonthlysubscription itstechnology-relatedcrimesunit.Asthegamebe-
fee,playersreceivedanallowanceofLindens(the camemorelikereality,someplayersjokedthatthey
in-gamecurrency)thatofficiallyexchangedwithUS wereinneedofa“thirdlife.”
MichaelRayisafreelancewriterandaResearchEditoratEncyclopædiaBritannica.
The US 2006 Midterm Elections
byDavidC.Beckwith
I
nastingingrebuketoPres.GeorgeW.Bushand vidualcongressman,usuallyatthebehestofalob-
hisparty,votersswungdecisivelytoDemocratsin byistwhoreciprocatedwithcampaigncontributions.
2006 US congressional and state elections.The By 2006, however, many of the reforms had been
Republicans’ 12-year control of Congress was eroded,andearmarkingwasbackwithavengeance.
abruptlyended,andrecentGOPgainsinstatelegis- A second-rank GOP legislator was imprisoned in
laturesandgovernorshipswerereversedinanation- Marchfortradingearmarksforbribes,andinSep-
wideDemocraticsurge.Onthefederallevel,Democ- temberasix-termrepresentative,BobNeyofOhio,
rats captured 31 new seats in the US House of admittedtocriminalactsassociatedwithbribesand
Representatives, for a gift giving. Later that
prospective 233–202 “ monthMarkFoley,another
advantage in the new The Republicans’12-year senior Republican, was
Congress.Moresurpris- forcedtoresignafterpub-
ingly, Democrats effec- control of Congress was licationofsexuallysugges-
tivelygained6USSen- tivee-mailshehadwritten
ate seats, turning a abruptly ended, and toformerHousepages.Al-
55–45deficitintonar- though some Democrats
row 51–49 control. recent GOP gains in state were accused of ethical
That meant that a di- improprieties as well, the
vided government (one legislatures and governor- year’s multiple ethics
partycontrollingtheex- charges only intensified
ecutive branch, the ships were reversed in a voterdemandforchange.
other the legislative Sen. George Allen of Vir-
branch), mandated by nationwide Democratic ginia,apotential2008Re-
USvotersfor26ofthe publican presidential can-
”
past 38 years, would surge. didate, used the term
returnagainin2007.A macaca (the definition of
seriesofseriousethical which was variously a
controversiesbedeviled monkey, a town in South
theRepublicanmajority Africa, or a racial slur
duringtheyear,allowingDemocratstodecry“acul- againstAfricanimmigrants)whenreferringtoaDe-
tureofcorruption”inWashington.Investigationsof mocratic campaign worker of Indian descent who
officialswhodealtwithconvictedGOPlobbyistJack was recording campaign-rally remarks for Internet
Abramoff led indirectly to the resignation of Tom use. Allen urged followers to “give a welcome to
DeLay,aseniorTexascongressman,andatainton macaca, here.” Though he later apologized, Allen
severalotherRepublicans.GOPproblemsraneven lostaclosereelectionbattle.Publicdissatisfaction
deeper, however. In 1994, when Republicans cap- withthewarinIraqtopped65%byyear’send,negat-
turedtheUSHouseafter40yearsintheminority, ingPresidentBush’seffortstoassistindividualRe-
they relied on a “Contract with America” that publican candidates in their reelection bids and
promised 10 specific reforms. One was a curb on spilling into Democratic politics as well. Sen. Joe
earmarking,spendingonprojectspushedbyanindi- Lieberman of Connecticut, his party’s 2000 vice
© 2008 Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.
YEARINREVIEW 9
presidential nominee and Bush’s strongest Demo- Democratsdidpromiseearlyactiononseveralbills,
craticallyinthewaronterrorism,losthisAugustpri- includingonestoraisetheminimumwageandvoid
marytoanantiwaropponent.Hewonreelectionas recenttaxconcessionstounpopularoilcompanies.
an independent in November only with substantial Democratsmainlyconcentratedoncriticizingnumer-
Republicansupport.Incontrastto1994,theout-of- ous Republicanmissteps in Iraq and in their man-
power party did not publish a clear, detailed alter- agementofCongress.Thestrategyworked,butthe
nateblueprintforthefuture,inpartbecauseofin- direction that the Democrats would take was any-
ternal Democratic divisions over key issues. thingbutclear.
DavidC.Beckwithisafreelancewriter.
Outsourcing War—The Surge in Private Military Firms
byPeterSaracino
T
heconflictinIraqfocusedrenewedattentionon wrong,however,toconcludethatPMFsarenewcom-
theroleplayedbyprivatemilitaryfirms(PMFs) erstowarfare.Priortothe19thcentury,itwascom-
inmodernwar.In2006morethan60firmsem- mon for states to contract for military services, in-
ploying20,000armedpersonnelwereestimatedto cluding combat. The word soldier itself is derived
beoperatinginIraq,whichmadePMFsthesecond fromtheLatinsolidus,meaningagoldcoin.During
largest foreign military contingent, after the United the 3rd century BC, Alexander the Great employed
States. These firms con- mercenary forces to help
duct vital security duties, “ conquerAsia,andBritain
ranging from escorting In 2006 more than 60 hired German soldiers
convoys of freight to pro- called Hessians to fight
tecting key facilities and firms employing 20,000 the colonists during the
leaders. The industry American Revolution
even has its own lobby armed personnel were (1775–83). In the 17th
group, the Private Secu- and 18th centuries, the
rity Company Association estimated to be operat- British East India Com-
ofIraq,withnearly50in- pany and its Danish,
ternational corporate ing in Iraq, which made Dutch, and French rivals
members. PMFs have all had private armies to
also attracted unwanted private military firms the help defend their govern-
attention,however,includ- ment-sanctionedbusiness
ing allegations that con- second largest foreign interestsinAsia.
tractors working in 2003
as military interrogators military contingent, after EFFECTSONMILITARY
andtranslatorsattheno- ” The growth of the mod-
toriousAbuGhraibprison the United States. ern privatized military in-
in Iraq were involved in dustry has had an effect
theabuseofprisoners.In onthearmedforcesthat
March2006ajuryfound theywereintendedtoas-
the PMF Custer Battles sist. With PMFs offering
guiltyofhavingdefraudedtheUSgovernmentofmil- dailywagesofupto$1,000toattracthighlytrained
lionsofdollarsforworkdonewhileundercontractin staff, there has been an exodus of soldiers from
Iraq. manyspecialforces.Britain’sSpecialAirService,the
USArmy’sSpecialForces,andtheCanadianArmy’s
THEEVOLUTIONOFPMFs JointTaskForce2haveallacknowledgedproblems
ThetermPMF—alsoprivatesecuritycompanyand retainingpersonnelandareofferingspecialbonuses
military services provider—is a catch-all expression andpayincreasesinanefforttocompetewithlucra-
that includes traditional security firms employing tivewagesintheprivatesector.
armedguards,companiesshippingdefensematériel, Whenamilitaryorganizationhasnoorganiccapa-
consultantsofferingadviceonstrategy,andmilitary bility, it becomes dependent on private industry to
trainers.Unliketraditionaldefenseindustries,PMFs provideit.In2000,forexample,theCanadiannavy
operateincombatzonesandotherareaswherevio- had no logistics ships, and the government con-
lencemaybeimminent.States,privateindustry,and tractedashippingcompanytotake580vehiclesand
humanitarianaidagenciesallemploytheservicesof 390seacontainersfullofequipmentbacktoCanada
PMFs. following the completion of NATO operations in
The modern PMF is a product of the end of the Kosovo.Owingtoadisputeoverunpaidbills,theship
ColdWar;intheearly1990smanycountriesslashed loitered in international waters for two weeks until
defensebudgetsfollowingthedemiseoftheSoviet Canadian military personnel boarded the ship and
Union.Thiscoincidedwiththegrowingtrendofgov- forcedittodockinaCanadianport.
ernmentstooutsourceservicestoprivateindustry. Despitetheseproblems,PMFsarenowcalledupon
As a consequence armed forces were left to carry todeliverservicespreviouslyconsideredthedomain
outtheirmissionswithfewerships,aircraft,andper- ofmilitarypersonnel.Kellogg,Brown&Root(KBR)
sonnel,leavingmoresupportandrear-areafunctions runs the only permanent US base in Africa (Camp
(e.g., repairing tanks, training pilots, and preparing LemonierinDjibouti,atthemouthoftheRedSea).
meals)tobeoutsourcedtocontractors.Itwouldbe KBRhasmorethan700employeeswhodolaundry,
© 2008 Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.