Table Of ContentEMERGING MEMBRANE
TECHNOLOGY FOR
SUSTAINABLE WATER
TREATMENT
NICHOLAS P. HANKINS
The Oxford Centre for SustainableWater Engineering
Department of Engineering Science
The University of Oxford,Oxford, UK
RAJINDAR SINGH
Membrane Ventures,LLC
Colorado Springs, CO, USA
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LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS
Catalina Alvarado
Departmentof Civil and EnvironmentalEngineering, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, Troy,
NY,USA
O€zgu€r Arar
Departmentof Chemistry, Faculty of Science,Ege University, Izmir, Turkey
Dibakar Bhattacharyya
Chemicaland Materials Engineering,University of Kentucky,Lexington, KY, USA
W.Richard Bowen
FREng, i-NewtonWales, Swansea, UK
Jakob Buchheim
Departmentof Mechanical and Process Engineering, Eidgeno€ssische Technische Hochschule
(ETH) Zu€rich, Zu€rich, Switzerland
Samuel Bunani
Departmentof Chemical Engineering,Facultyof Engineering, Ege University, Izmir, Turkey;
Departmentof Chemistry, Faculty of Science,Ege University, Izmir, Turkey;Departmentof
Chemistry, Facultyof Science, University of Burundi,Bujumbura, Burundi
MalyndaA. Cappelle
TheUniversity ofTexasatElPaso,CenterforInlandDesalinationSystems,ElPaso,TX,USA
Philip A.Davies
Aston University,Birmingham, UK
Thomas A. Davis
TheUniversity ofTexasatElPaso,CenterforInlandDesalinationSystems,ElPaso,TX,USA
Mengmeng Deng
Departmentof Mechanical and Process Engineering, Eidgeno€ssische Technische Hochschule
(ETH) Zu€rich, Zu€rich, Switzerland
Kathryn Farris
Departmentof Civil and EnvironmentalEngineering, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, Troy,
NY,USA
TakahiroFujioka
Water and Environmental Engineering,GraduateSchool of Engineering, Nagasaki University,
Nagasaki,Japan
M.C. García-Payo
DepartmentofAppliedPhysics,FacultyofPhysics,UniversityComplutenseofMadrid,Madrid,
Spain
xi
xii ListofContributors
J.Gilron
TheZuckerbergInstituteforWaterResearch,BlausteinInstitutesforDesertResearch,Midreshet
Sde Boker,Ben Gurion Universityof the Negev,Israel
NicholasP. Hankins
The Oxford Centre for Sustainable Water Engineering,Department of Engineering Science,
The Universityof Oxford,Oxford, UK
Claus H(cid:2)elix-Nielsen
TheBiomimeticMembraneGroup,DTUPhysics,TechnicalUniversityofDenmark,Kongens
Lyngby,Denmark; Facultyof Chemistry and Chemical Engineering,University of Maribor,
Maribor,Slovenia
Sebasti(cid:2)an Hern(cid:2)andez
Chemical and Materials Engineering, University of Kentucky,Lexington, KY, USA
Nalan Kabay
Department of Chemical Engineering,Faculty of Engineering,Ege University, Izmir, Turkey
Sher Jamal Khan
National University of Sciences and Technology (NUST), Islamabad,Pakistan
Mohamed Khayet
DepartmentofAppliedPhysics,FacultyofPhysics,UniversityComplutenseofMadrid,Madrid,
Spain;MadridInstituteofAdvancedStudiesofWater(IMDEAWaterInstitute),Madrid,Spain
James Kilduff
Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering,Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, Troy,
NY, USA
Chang-Min Kim
School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Gwangju Institute of Science and
Technology (GIST), Gwangju,Republic of Korea
Long D. Nghiem
Strategic Water Infrastructure Laboratory, School of Civil, Mining and Environmental
Engineering,University of Wollongong, Wollongong, NSW, Australia
LindellOrmsbee
Chemical and Materials Engineering, University of Kentucky,Lexington, KY, USA
Hyung GyuPark
Department of Mechanicaland ProcessEngineering,Eidgeno€ssische TechnischeHochschule
(ETH)Zu€rich,Zu€rich, Switzerland
Anthony Saad
Chemical and Materials Engineering, University of Kentucky,Lexington, KY, USA
Julio A. Sanmartino
DepartmentofAppliedPhysics,FacultyofPhysics,UniversityComplutenseofMadrid,Madrid,
Spain
Li-Cheng Shen
The Oxford Centre for Sustainable Water Engineering,Department of Engineering Science,
The Universityof Oxford,Oxford, UK
ListofContributors xiii
Rajindar Singh
MembraneVentures, LLC,Colorado Springs, CO, USA
Chuyang Y. Tang
Departmentof Civil Engineering,The University of Hong Kong, Pokfulam, Hong Kong
Zhining Wang
KeyLaboratoryofMarineChemistryTheoryandTechnology,MinistryofEducationofChina
Ocean University of China, Qingdao,China
Roman M. Wyss
Departmentof Mechanical and Process Engineering, Eidgeno€ssische Technische Hochschule
(ETH) Zu€rich, Zu€rich, Switzerland
PREFACE
‘Overcomingthecrisisinwaterandsanitationisoneofthegreatesthumandevelopment
challengesoftheearly21stcentury’,arecentUNreporthaswarned.Aboutoneinevery
sixpeopletodaydonothavesufficientaccesstocleandrinkingwater,andtwiceasmany
lackbasicsanitation.Asaresult,2.2milliondeathsperyeararerelatedtowater/hygiene/
sanitation; many of these are children. Such problems are forecast to grow worse, with
more than half the world’s population facing chronic to critical water shortages by
2050, limiting economic development and food supplies. Ensuring adequate water
supplies to allow a sustainable future, thus poses an engineering challenge of the first
magnitude.
What are the solutions to these challenges? New and massive reservoirs, wells, pipe-
linesandrivertransfersarenolongeracceptable;amoresustainabledevelopmentanduse
ofwaterresourcesisrequired,involvingmoresophisticatedtechnology.Climatechange
means previously less water-stressed regions must rely increasingly on brackish under-
ground waters or seawater as the main source of water, which can be energy intensive;
alternatively, they must recycle and reuse wastewater. Yet global warming and rising
fossil fuel prices both imply increasing challenges in the sustainable supply of energy.
Add to this, the fact that the treatment of flowback water and produced water resulting
from hydraulic fracturing (‘fracking’) of oil and gas wells is also becoming increasingly
critical for safe disposal and reuse. All this implies further increases in the cost of water
generally, and desalinated water in particular. On the other hand, an economically,
environmentallyandsociallysustainabletechnologyforwatertreatmentshouldbeinex-
pensive and energy-efficient, with minimal or no chemical consumption, it should be
capable of water recycling and reuse that minimise the direct disposal of wastewater to
the aquatic environment, and it should be an accessible technology which can be
deployed in a wide range of human scenarios and over a wide range of physical scales.
Membrane separation technology offers a very promising response to address these
toughchallenges;ithasthepromisetodramaticallyimprovethesustainabilityofourwa-
ter resources. In recent years, the deployment of membrane technology in the water
sectorhasgrownexponentially.Thegrowinginterestinmembranetechnologyforwater
and wastewater treatment is based on the following advantages:
(cid:129) Compared to conventional technology, membrane technology has better contami-
nantremovalefficiencies.Itthushasthecapabilitytoaddressmorestringentdrinking
water regulations. Since it prevents the passage of Cryptosporidium, Giardia and other
pathogenicbacteriaandviruses,itavoidstheriskofmicrobialoutbreakswithoutany
chemical pretreatment. In wastewater treatment, membranes produce a very high
xv
xvi Preface
effluentqualitythatmeetsstrictdischargeregulations,andeffluentscanbereusedfor
industrial applications, irrigation and even as a source of potable drinking water.
(cid:129) Thetechnologyishighlysuitableindevelopingcountries,becauseitcanbeusedfor
small and distributed communities. Since a membrane filtration unit typically needs
onlyhalforlessthefootprintofaconventionalpotablewaterorwastewatertreatment
plant,itsavesonspaceandmoney.Thecapacityofanexistingplantcanbeincreased
by membrane units without additional footprint, whether for plant upgrade, expan-
sion orfor anew plant,enablingsubstantial capitalsavings. Furthermore,membrane
units are modular in design, allowing for easy duplication and scale-up.
(cid:129) Unlike the thermal effect units which are used for distillation, membrane separation
processesdonotgenerallyinvolveboiling,allowingforagreatlyreducedenergycon-
sumption.Theyarealsoideallysuitedtooperationwhichexploitsrenewableenergy
sources, such as solar, wind and tidal.
(cid:129) Withtheincreaseinmembranedeployment,particularlyinthewatersector,therehas
beenasteadyreductioninmembraneequipmentcosts,makingwaterandwastewater
treatment costs much lower. Indeed, recycling wastewater directly from municipal
sewage is much cheaper in energy and resource terms than purifying seawater, and
obviates wastewater disposal problems and water pollution.
(cid:129) Membranesarecapableofprocessinghighlycontaminatedwater,suchasfloodwater
and sewage, with high concentrations of suspended solids and organic compounds.
Thus, the use of membrane technology facilitates the use of lower quality water,
or so-called ‘sewer mining’. Moreover, it shows flexibility to handle changing feed-
water conditions and capacity increases. The operation is simple and automated,
which ensures that system integrity is met.
Forallthesereasons,thereisarapidlyexpandingrangeofemergingmembranetech-
nologies for sustainable water supply and treatment. This book has focused on these
emergingandstate-of-the-artapplicationsbyinvitingcontributionsfromleadingexperts
in four main areas, and each chapter highlights an area of innovative and promising
technological development.
Section 1 covers membrane processes for global water solutions, with introductory
contributions on the ethical and sustainable utilisation of water, and on membrane-
based water processing. In Section 2, desalination and potable water purification are
highlighted,withcontributionsonforwardosmosisforsustainablewaterprocessing,mem-
brane distillation for brine concentrate treatment, desalination by photovoltaic-powered
RO, the use of fuel cells to power decentralised desalination in developing countries,
theapplicationofion exchangemembranestowatersoftening andhigh-recoverydesali-
nationatzerodischargeandanoverviewofelectromembraneprocesses.Attheotherend
ofthewatersupplychain,Section3focusesonwastewatertreatmentforreclamationand
reuse,anditincludestheremovaloftraceorganiccontaminantsbyNF/RO,theapplica-
tionofpolymeresurfactanttechnologiestocontaminantremovalandrecovery,theuseof
Preface xvii
emerging membrane bioreactor technology for water reclamation and reuse and brine
treatment for high-recovery desalination. Finally, Section 4 features novel membrane
materials and applications, including high-purity water purification, development of
aquaporin-based biomimetic membranes, porous ultrathin graphene membranes, nano-
composite and pH/temperature-responsive membranes and finally membrane fouling
and developments in control techniques.
Throughoutthebook,theunifyingthemesofsustainability,energyandresourceef-
ficiencyincludingrenewableenergy,andreclamation,reuseandrecycleareemphasised.
As a whole, the book provides a unique and single source in highlighting the growing
and competitive importance of innovative membrane technology for sustainable water
supply and technology.
Why a new book in this area?
The challenges posed by water stress and poor water-related hygiene have assumed a
growingurgencyinthepastdecade,tiedinextricablytothewaterefoodeenergynexus,
in the midst of which global climate change has adopted a key and alarming position.
Though membrane technology is hardly new, it has started to emerge globally in the
past decade as a serious contender for this challenge at the large scale. Yet, whilst there
are countless texts on water treatment and on membrane technologies, none address
in a whole and integrated way the contribution which membrane technology is poised
to make in the future. For the first time, the reader is able to see in one reference work
the state of the art in this rapidly evolving area.
Wewishtothankallthechaptercontributors, andappreciatetheeditorsatElsevier,
Kostas Marinakis, Christine McElvenny and Debasish Ghosh for their support and
patience.And,Rajindardedicatesthebooktohisfamily:RashnaBatliwala,SamirIndar
and Namrita Shirin.
Nicholas P. Hankins and Rajindar Singh
November 2015
CHAPTER 1
Ethical and Sustainable Utilisation
of Water: Global Scenarios and
Engineering Responsibilities
W. Richard Bowen
FREng,i-NewtonWales,Swansea,UK
1.1 INTRODUCTION
The development of a broad international consensus about the importance of human
rights is one of the outstanding achievements of the twentieth century. The concept
of human rights may be described as [1]:
There is something about each and every human being, simply as a human being, such that
certainchoicesshouldbemadeandcertainchoicesrejected;inparticular,certainthingsought
nottobedonetoanyhumanbeingandcertainotherthingsoughttobedoneforeveryhuman
being.
The international consensus about this concept was first and most prominently
demonstrated in 1948, through the United Nations’ Universal Declaration of Human
Rights (UDHR) [2]. This recognises that respect for the inherent dignity, and conse-
quently for certain equal and inalienable rights, of all human beings is the foundation
of freedom, justice and peace in the world. The Declaration has been developed
through various international, regional and national legal instruments. At the interna-
tionallevel,twoofthemostimportantaretheInternationalCovenantonEconomic,Social
and Cultural Rights (ICESCR) and the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights
(ICCPR).
Human rights discourse continues to develop. Thus, in 2010 a resolution [3] of
theGeneralAssemblyoftheUnitedNationsacknowledged‘theimportanceofequitable
access to safe and clean drinking water and sanitation as an integral component of the
realization of all human rights’, and further recognised:
therighttosafeandcleandrinkingwaterandsanitationasahumanrightthatisessentialfor
thefullenjoymentoflifeandallhumanrights.
This resolution provides a very clear statement of the internationally recognised
ethical importance of each person’s need for access to clean drinking water and sanita-
tion. Furthermore, this importance should be considered in the context of the
EmergingMembraneTechnologyforSustainableWaterTreatment ©2016ElsevierB.V.
3
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-444-63312-5.00001-2 Allrightsreserved.
4 EmergingMembraneTechnologyforSustainableWaterTreatment
UDHRchallengethat‘everyindividualandorganofsociety.shallstrivebyteaching
and education to promote respect for these rights and freedoms and by progressive
measures,nationalandinternational,tosecuretheiruniversalandeffectiverecognition
and observance’.
Progressivemeasurestomeeteachperson’sneedsmustbesustainableiftheyaretobe
truly effective. Thus, sustainability has become a major international concern, as exem-
plifiedbytheUnitedNationsConferenceonSustainableDevelopmentinRiodeJaneiro
in2012.Theoutcomedocument[4]ofthisconferencehadavisionof‘commitmentto
sustainabledevelopmentandtoensuringthepromotionofaneconomically,sociallyand
environmentallysustainablefutureforourplanetandforpresentandfuturegenerations’.
It envisaged a world that is ‘just, equitable and inclusive’ in which people participate in
decision-making that influences their lives. Water and sanitation are prominent in the
document:
We recognize that water is at the core of sustainable development as it is closely linked to a
number of key global challenges. We therefore reiterate the importance of integrating water
into sustainable development, and underline the critical importance of water and sanitation
withinthethreedimensionsofsustainabledevelopment.Westresstheneedtoadoptmeasures
to significantly reduce water pollution and increase water quality, significantly improve waste-
watertreatmentandwaterefficiencyandreducewaterlosses.Inordertoachievethis,westress
theneedforinternationalassistanceandcooperation.
Herethethreedimensionsofsustainabledevelopmentareeconomic,socialandenvi-
ronmental.Waterandsanitationarelinkedtomanyprioritiesoftheoutcomedocument,
including health, food and energy.
Thus,theneedsforethicalandsustainableutilisationofwaterarewidelyrecognised.
This chapter will explore, at two levels, aspects of this recognition that are pertinent to
the present book. Firstly, present global perspectives and likely global plans will be out-
lined.Secondly,themorespecificresponsibilitiesofengineers,andespeciallymembrane
engineers, will be considered.
1.2 GLOBAL PERSPECTIVES
TheUnitedNationsGeneralAssemblyMillenniumMeetingin2000committednations
to a new global partnership. It aims to reduce extreme poverty bysetting out a series of
time-bound targets, with a deadline of 2015, that have become known as the Millen-
nium Development Goals (MDG). The specific targets developed included to ‘halve
the proportion of the population without sustainable access to safe drinking water and
basic sanitation’, using data for 1990as abaseline. Much of therecent globalfocus con-
cerningwaterandsanitationhasbeenonprogresstowardsthesetargets.Themostrecent
update [5] shows not only that there has been significant progress, but also that there
