Table Of ContentElusive Jannah
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Elusive Jannah
The Somali Diaspora and a
Borderless Muslim Identity
Cawo M. Abdi
UNIVERSITY OF MINNESOTA PRESS
MINNEAPOLIS • LONDON
The publication of this book was supported by an Imagine Fund grant for the Arts,
Design, and Humanities, an annual award from the University of Minnesota Provost’s
Office.
Copyright 2015 by the Regents of the University of Minnesota
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a
retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical,
photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without the prior written permission of the
publisher.
Published by the University of Minnesota Press
111 Third Avenue South, Suite 290
Minneapolis, MN 55401- 2520
http://www.upress.umn.edu
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Abdi, Cawo M.
Elusive Jannah : the Somali diaspora and a borderless Muslim identity /
Cawo M. Abdi.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 978-0-8166-9738-0 (hc)
ISBN 978-0-8166-9739-7 (pb)
1. Somali diaspora. 2. Somalis—United Arab Emirates—Social conditions.
3. Somalis—South Africa—Social conditions. 4. Somalis—United States—Social
conditions. 5. Muslims—Cultural assimilation. 6. Immigrants—Cultural assimilation.
I. Title.
DT402.45.A23 2015
305.893540088297—dc23 2014043030
Printed in the United States of America on acid- free paper
The University of Minnesota is an equal- opportunity educator and employer.
21 20 19 18 17 16 15 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
contents
Acknowledgments / vii
Introduction: Muslim African Refugees and Border Politics / 1
1 The Genesis of Contemporary Somali Migrations / 31
2 United Arab Emirates: Partial Belonging and Temporary Visas / 59
3 South Africa: Insecurity in Racialized Spaces / 111
4 United States: Slippery Jannah? / 169
Conclusion: Muslim African Refugees in Perpetual Passage / 231
Notes / 243
Index / 273
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acknowledgments
Countless Somali men and women gave me their precious time and trusted
me with their life histories at the five sites where I conducted research over
the years (Somalia, Kenya, the United Arab Emirates, South Africa, and the
United States). Their kindness often humbled me, and this book is dedi-
cated to Somalis everywhere whose unbounded hospitality (martigalis) sur-
vived the political crises still plaguing that nation.
Like all books, this one was long in the making and owes a lot to col-
leagues, friends, and family. Donna Gabaccia, Teresa Gowan, Lisa Park,
Jennifer Pierce, and Rachel Schurman commented on parts or all of the
manuscript. Their friendship and incessant confidence in this book kept me
going when the going got tough, and I cannot express enough gratitude.
Many thanks also to Abdi Samatar for wonderful feedback on chapter 1
and to Janis Grobbelaar for a thorough reading of chapter 3. Working with
freelance editor David Lobenstine was a delight. His superb eye and detailed
feedback greatly improved this work. Thanks to Pete Kennedy and Mark
Lindberg for the fantastic maps in this book.
Comments received at various platforms where I presented parts of this
project were useful as well. These included the University of Minnesota;
invited talks at the University of California at San Diego, the College of
St. Catherine, Central Connecticut State University, Macalester College, St.
Louis University, Denison University, Ohio Wesleyan University, St. Cloud
vii
viii acknowledgments
State University, and the University of Pretoria; and conferences of the
American Sociological Association, the Canadian Sociological Association
Congress, the South African Sociological Congress, and the African Studies
Association.
I am fortunate to be in a great department. Our former and current chairs,
Chris Uggen and Elizabeth Boyle, have supported this work. Thanks to my
colleagues Ron Aminzade, Gabrielle Ferrales, Michael Goldman, Kathy Hall,
Doug Hartman, Phyllis Moen, Josh Page, David Pellow, and Teresa Swartz.
Thanks to Richard Black for great mentorship over the years. I am surrounded
and inspired by wonderful colleagues and friends— Erika Busse, Njeri Githire,
James Hendricks, Allen Isaacman, Meg Karraker, Trica Keaton, Diyah Lara-
sati, Helga Leitner, M. J. Maynes, Eric Sheppard, and Anita Waters. Janis Grob-
belaar, Maxi Schoeman, Charles Puttergill, Vangile Bingma, and Angela Ochse
went beyond the call of duty to facilitate our stay in Pretoria. Thanks to
Mary Drew, Ann Miller, and Hilda Mork in Minnesota and Martie Hanekom
and Rita du Toit in Pretoria for essential administrative needs over the years.
I am most obliged to Nazli Kibria and Steven Gold for their constructive
feedback as reviewers of this manuscript for the University of Minnesota
Press. Steven Gold also provided indispensable follow- up feedback. It was
fantastic to work with Jason Weidemann and other editorial staff at the Uni-
versity of Minnesota Press.
Too many to mention, but I would like to name a few individuals whose
guidance in various settings facilitated the research process: in South Africa,
Abdirashid Ibrahim, Amina M. Ali, Bashir Abdullahi, Sultan Ali, Ahmed
Dowlo, Sheikh Ahmed Abdi, Mohamed Hassan, Osman Mohamed, Abdi
Borama, Alas Jama, Mohamed Abdullahi, Ruqiya Mire Jama, and Fadumo
Gaa’ir; in Minneapolis and St. Paul, Said Fahie, Maryan Dheel, Sheikh Abdi-
rahman Sharif, Saharla Jama, Zuhur Ahmed, and Ahmed Yusuf; in Colum-
bus, Jibril Mohamed, Mohamud Dirios, Doug Rutledge, Abdi Roble, Abdi
Farah, Anita Waters, Ismail Ahmed, Roda Hassan, Nafisa Daud, and Sah-
rakiin Siad; in the UAE, Abdullahi Ali (Haybe), Alibadal Ahmed, Issa Hagi
Farah, Fawsia Nur, Ahmed Naji Warfa, Ibrahim Sheikh, Sahra Saleh, and
Fadumo and Muse Garow. My humble apologies to others whose names do
not appear in this recognition but should have.
A grant from the University of Minnesota’s Office of International Pro-
grams, a Multicultural Research Award, and a semester residence at the
acknowledgments ix
Institute for Advanced Studies as well as a yearlong Fulbright Fellowship
gave me the time and resources to complete this project. I would also like to
acknowledge a Canadian Social Science and Humanities Research Council
Fellowship as well as a British Commonwealth Fellowship for funding my
doctoral work, from which the U.S. case draws. This book could not have
been without the great commitment and professionalism of many research
assistants. Thanks to Abdulkadir Ali, Abdifatah Mohamed, Saida Abdi,
Ahmed Ali, Yasin Garad, June Msechu, and Guled Ibrahim. Adam Casey
was an integral part of this book for the past four years and provided essen-
tial research assistance that aided its timely completion.
The unconditional love of family and friends makes everything we
accomplish possible. Thanks to my siblings, Maryam, Safia, Saida, Habib, and
Wa’an. My older sisters sacrificed their own pursuits to provide for dozens of
family members while I pursued my education. I would not have accom-
plished half of what I have without them. Much love to my nephew and
nieces, Mohamed Nur- Sed and Yasmin and Khadija Mohamed; my brothers-
in- law, Jon Thorleifson, Rage Mohamed, and Ahmed Samatar; and cousins
Ida, Edil, Hibak, and Deka and Bilan Hersi. My friend and sister Asha Issa
fed me, housed me, and put up with my mess in my writing escapade to
Ottawa. Thanks to Natasha Avakova, Geoffrey Dean, and Hodan Mohamed
for decades of friendship. Thanks to my Minnesota family Amina Farah,
Saida, Idil, Sagal, Nasra, and Ifrah Makarios for child care and absolute love.
Special thanks to Abdi Samatar, who has been part of this book from its
inception to its completion. It is impossible to quantify his contributions to
my life and work. Our children, Sama and Tusmo, have learned the word
tenure too soon. They accepted that Mom’s project deserved weekend excur-
sions to cafés and public libraries, and they, more than anyone, are most
relieved it is now complete.
Most important, I thank my mother, Asha Qaalli. She raised eight chil-
dren in the direst economic circumstances and encouraged us all to pursue
education, though she has never had any schooling. She is a fearless poet and
a pillar of courage, and we owe everything to her. This book is dedicated
to her and to other mothers whose valiant efforts to create a semblance of
normalcy for their children everywhere keep Somalia’s hope alive.
