Elephant in Antiquity and the Middle Ages

383 Pages·2017·2.76 MB·English

Elephant in Antiquity and the Middle Ages
Tome I Text
Kiwako OGATA Thèse présentée en vue de l'obtention du grade
académique de Docteure en Histoire, histoire de
l’art et archéologie
sous la direction de
Monsieur le Professeur Alain Dierkens
Madame la Professeure Jacqueline Leclercq
Année académique 2016-2017
Acknowledgements

First of all, I would like to express my gratitude to Professor Jacqueline Leclercq who
accepted me warmly as a doctoral student and who always guided me gently. It was the
“Siren” that brought me to her, as I myself was interested in the iconography of
monsters. The theme that professor Leclercq suggested for my thesis was the “elephant”,
of which I knew almost nothing. However, the more I studied, the more this animal, one
of the marvels of the world along with monsters, the more it revealed itself to be full of
meaning. The elephant urges us to reconsider the boundaries between man and nature,
man and animals, animals and monsters, East and West and the boundaries between
different disciplines. For us who dwell on the extreme east out of the Eurasia continent,
the elephant is an exotic animal, and we can imagine how Charlemagne, Frederick II
and Henry IV and their public marveled at the sight of this extraordinarily large and
intelligent creature. Besides our e-mail exchanges, I undertook an annual visit to
Bruxelles to ask professor Leclercq for instructions and suggestions. This annual
journey lasted for over 10 years, and the research proceeded bit by bit (as if traveling on
the back of an elephant).
I appreciate the kindness of Professor Alain Dierkens who succeeded in the role of
supervisor, all the Professors of jury and staff of the Université Libre de Bruxelles,
M.me Catherine Frenay, among others. My great gratitude is addressed to Professor
Christopher Melley who read through my draft and gave precious suggestions and Ms.
Kayoko Ishimine for minute revising and editing. Without their patient help, I could not
have completed the work. I am indebted to Mr. Rémy Cordonnier who provided me
suggestions and information so generously and Professor Anthony P. Jenkins who
answered willingly my questions especially relating to Latin, and to Ms. Ida
Cantalamessa, who offered me accommodation every year in Bruxelles. I thank my
sister Madoka, who helped with her expertise in graphic techniques.
I was much helped by the reciprocal lending service of the Japanese University
libraries. Many thanks to our university library and others incorporated within the
Japanese University library system, also libraries in Bruxelles and Italy. Even in this era
of internet, the direct access to books is indispensable.
Naha, May 2017
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TABLE OF CONTENTS

Acknowledgements...................................................................................................i
Preface.......................................................................................................................1
General Introduction: the elephant as an animal.................................................9
1) Genealogy of the elephant....................................................................................10
2) Currently existing elephant species......................................................................12
2-A) Asian Elephant.............................................................................................12
2-B) African Elephant...........................................................................................14
3) Elephant’s anatomy...............................................................................................15
3-A) Trunk............................................................................................................15
3-B) Tusks............................................................................................................16
3-C) Brain.............................................................................................................16
3-D) Legs..............................................................................................................16
3-E) Skin...............................................................................................................17
3-F) Vision and audition.......................................................................................17

Chapter 1) Elephants in Greek and Hellenistic Civilizations..............................21
1-1) Heritage of sources ............................................................................................21
A) The oldest testimonies. Prevalence of geographical and historical sources
on biological studies..........................................................................................21
B) Aristotle’s invaluable reports in the realm of zoology.....................................27
a) About elephant’s limbs and bending............................................................29
b) About generative organs..............................................................................30
c) About sperm.................................................................................................30
d) About elephant’s breasts..............................................................................30
e) About the elephant’s reproductive behaviour, number of young, and
gestation period, suckling of the calf, etc..........................................................31
f) About the elephant’s gentleness and intelligence.........................................32
g) Elephant’s voice...........................................................................................32
h) Elephant’s disease........................................................................................32
i) Art of hunting, breeding and training for battle of the elephant...................33
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1-2) War elephants in service for Hellenistic rulers. From appropriation
to cultural fusion. ............................................................................................33
1-3) Elephant’s visual representations in the Greek era
A) Alexander the Great’s commemorative coins: historical testimony..............39
B) Exuviae elephantis: the elephant as trophy of war and symbol of
appropriation...................................................................................................41
C) Elephants on Greco-Bactrian coins: cultural assimilation.............................42
D) Elephant-drawn chariot: animal in service of the gods.................................44
E) Totem animal of Seleucid: elephant as a self-image......................................45
F) Women in exuviae elephantis: personification of Africa...............................46
1-4) Conclusion.......................................................................................................47

Chapter 2) Elephants in Roman world: animals as multiple-faceted
symbols of military power, as draught animals for emperors and gods,
as circus animals, as moral models....................................................................49
2-1) Encounter of Romans with war elephants: huge and furious adversaries.......50
A) Pyrrhus and his elephants..............................................................................50
B) Elephants of Hannibal....................................................................................52
2-2) Elephants’ entry into Roman life.....................................................................55
A) The elephant as draught animal for emperors and gods: apotheosis and
immortalization of fame after death....................................................................55
B) Roman army’s rare use of the war elephant.................................................. 59
C) Elephant in spectacles: display of Roman power and amusement and
animal tricks .................................................................................................. 59
2-3) The elephant between zoology, moral model and mirabilia: plentiful
accounts of the animal by Roman writers.........................................................64
A) Zoological and historical accounts................................................................64
B) The elephant as moral model........................................................................ 71
C) The elephant as mirabilia..............................................................................76
2-4) Specific themes concerning the elephant.........................................................79
A) Antagonism between elephants and serpents................................................79
B) Antagonism between the elephant and the rhinoceros...................................81
C) Elephants as symbols of Africa and its regions.............................................83
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D) Elephants among animals enchanted by Orpheus..........................................83
E) “Cancellata cutis” and elephantiasis............................................................ 85
F) Ivory: most luxurious material..................................................................... 87
2-5) Conclusion......................................................................................................87

Chapter 3) Elephants in Jewish and Christian literature (1st -6th C.).............91
3-1) Jewish concept of the elephant: Negative view of the elephant,
anthropocentric cosmology..............................................................................92
A) Story of Judas Maccabeus..............................................................................92
B) Philo of Alexandria: justification of man’s dominion over animals..............94
3-2) Patristic literature: the elephant enters into Christian cosmology..................97
A) Hexameron: praise for the skillful Creation of God and justification
of the man’s sovereignty over animals............................................................97
B) Representation of the scene of Creation : Adam in paradise naming the
animals............................................................................................................101
C) Saint Eucherius: the elephant as a sinner.....................................................102
3-3) Physiologus: the elephant enters into Christian allegory...............................103
A) Greek Physiologus: the elephant couple as the figure of Adam and Eve;
the big elephant as the Law; the 12 elephants as prophets; the small
elephant as the figure of Christ.....................................................................104
B) Latin Physiologus: the emphasis of draco as devil......................................107
a) versio Y.....................................................................................................107
b) versio B (Bern, Lat.233) : water as secular world....................................109
3-4) Ivory’s symbolism: symbol of luxury and the symbol of chastity.................111
A) Holy Scripture..............................................................................................111
B) Cassiodorus’ Expositio Psalmorum..............................................................113
C) Ivory works and trade of ivory......................................................................113
3-5) The elephant in Byzantine cosmography........................................................114
A) Cosmas Indicopleustes (Κοσµας Ινδικοπλεθστης)’s Christian
Topography (Χριστιανικη Τοπογραφια): representation of terrestrial world with
land animals.....................................................................................................114
B) The elephant of Byzantine Emperors: memory of Hellenistic and Roman
worlds...............................................................................................................117
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3-7) Cassiodorus’ observation: the elephant image disappearing at the end of
Antiquity...........................................................................................................120
3-8) Conclusion.......................................................................................................122

Chapter 4) From the beginning of Middle Ages to Ottonian period (7th-11th C.)
.....................125
4-1) Encyclopedias: transmission of the classical knowledge into Christian
context.. .............................................................................................................126
4-2) The elephant as the wonder (or terror) of the East...........................................133
4-3) New versions of Physiologus: changes towards bestiaries...............................140
4-4) The development of the story of antagonism between the dragon and the
elephant in Christian context..............................................................................143
4-5) Charlemagne’s elephant: symbol of earthen Paradise and power of emperor..145
4-6) Visual Representation of elephants in the Carolingian and Ottonian periods..148
A) Illustration of Physiologus manuscripts ........................................................ 148
B) Elephants in ornamental illustrations in Carolingian manuscripts..................150
C) Illustration of the elephant in Anglo-Saxon Marvels of the East (Wonders
of the East) manuscripts
D）Noah’s ark in the Beatus manuscripts............................................................154
E) Rabanus Maurus’ manuscript of Montecassino Abbey (Cod. Casinensis 132)
...............................................156
F) Greek Physiologus preserved in Ambrosiana Library (E16 sup.) ....................160
G) Oppianos’ Cynegetica’ s manuscript in Marciana Library...............................162
H) Carolingian and Ottonian ivory........................................................................165
4-7) Conclusion..........................................................................................................166

Chapter 5) Pre-Romanesque and Romanesque period—the elephant as a
vehicle of allegory and symbol, and an object of scientific observation
and experience..........................................................................................................169
5-1) Development of the allegorical story of the elephant versus the dragon............170
A) Stress on the dragon's tail: comparison with devil's chain..............................170
B): Cinnabar: a colour produced by the blood of the dragon and the elephant....172
5-2) Elephant and ivory (or bone) as allegory of chastity and purity.........................173
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A) Ivory as purity......................................................................................................173
B) Ivory trade and ivory craft centers in Mediterranean area. .............................. 174
C) Diffusion of olifants: its use in religious ceremonies and in chivalry culture...176
5-3) Memory of war elephant in Christian context-the elephant with tower on the
back. ...................................................................................................................177
A) The elephant with tower as the allegory of carelessness..................................177
B) The meaning of the elephant with tower in Christian context: secular
world or Christian church? ...................................................................................181
C) Elephant with tower as the symbol of good memory.......................................183
5-4) Elephants as supporters-figures of Adam and Eve and allegory of penitence...185

A) Bishop’s throne (cathedra) supported by elephants-elephant as allegory of
penitence or "heresy" succumbed to Christian church........................................185
B) Elephants as corbel and support: figure of penitents........................................192
C) Male and female elephants as Adam and Eve by a tree....................................197
5-5) The meaning of the tree the elephant supports or against which the elephant
leans.......................................................................................................................201
A) The trap made on the tree as allegory of secular world full of danger..............201
B) World tree depicted with elephant (s)................................................................201
C) Development of the account of the mandrake...................................................208
5-6) Elephant as the allegory of superbia....................................................................213
A) Scenes of First Maccabees: Eleazar’s self sacrifice under the enemy’s elephant-
influence of the Crusades movement ...................................................................213
B) Visual representation of the scene from 1 Maccabees.......................................214
5-7) Ivory chess-man with elephant figure: from Eastern secular game to the game
with Christian allegory...........................................................................................216
A) The elephant as an exotic animal of Menageries-yeaning of Norman lords?....217
B) Transformation of chess game in the Western culture.......................................218
C) From the war elephant of Indian army to the bishop-changes of meanings
of chess pieces from secular to Christian. ..............................................................221
5-8) The elephant in Cosmography, mappae mundi and wonders of East..................224
A) World Maps-the elephant in the world image....................................................225
B) Souvigny pillar- cosmographical diagram of world map and calendar..............228
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C) Elephant as the element of earth: four elements in Cosmology.........................230
5-9) Creation of animals, Adam’s naming of animals-wonder of Creation and
man’s dominion over animals.............................................................................231
A) Elephant as a wonder of the Creation..............................................................231
B) Adam names animals-man’s hegemony over animals.....................................233
5-10) Elephant and the allegory of water: Water as secular world or water of
purification? .....................................................................................................233
A) Water as allegory of the secular world............................................................235
B) Allegory of the rock in Psalm..........................................................................236
C) Water of baptism............................................................................................. 237
5-11) Animals themselves as a secular world...........................................................237
5-12) Elephant images which have no allegorical meanings....................................240
A) Elephant as ornament: influence of Oriental textile and other artifacts.......... 240
B) Influence of Oriental fables: the griffin vs. the elephant motif........................241
C) Morphology of the elephant: some observations on the representations of
elephant body parts as a result of interaction among text, oral tradition and
model... .................................................................................................................242
a) Tapir-like trunk and bird’s beak like trunk....................................................243
b) Snake-like trunk............................................................................................245
c) Hand like trunk, trunk as a tube coming out from the mouth.......................245
d) Representations of earlobes..........................................................................246
e) Legs without joints, legs of horse or caw......................................................247
f) Dancing and jumping elephant..................................................................... 248
g) Skin colur and rendering of skin ..................................................................249
h) Elephantine dimensions.................................................................................251
i) Elephant as a big ox.......................................................................................252
5-14) Conclusion.........................................................................................................252

Chapter 6) 13th century: Towards Gothic realism and Scholastic anthropo-
centrism regarding the relationship between the men and the animals..........255
6-1) Further development of the accounts on the mandrake: inclusion of
scientific accounts.................................................................................................256
6-2) Diversification of allegory of water: secular world, purity or baptism, and
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the mirror...............................................................................................................258
A) Water as the secular world...............................................................................258
B) Water as purity and baptism.............................................................................261
C) Water as mirror.................................................................................................262
6-3) From the tree as the secular world to the wood: Tuscan (Tosco-Venetian)
bestiary
6-4) The battle between the elephant and dragon or the basilisk............................. 265
6-5) Elephant as penitent, elephant as sinner............................................................268
6-6) Praise for the Creation-Hexameron tradition and stress on man’s hegemony
on other animals....................................................................................................270
6-7) Capture of elephants..........................................................................................273
6-8) The elephant vs. the unicorn..............................................................................277
6-9) Elephant as Christ/Bleeding elephant as Christ.................................................278
6-11) Elephant as Virgin Mary..................................................................................280
A) Elephant and Virgin Mary as turris eburnea ..................................................280
B) Allegory of ivory..............................................................................................283
C) Chess game: development of its allegory.........................................................284
6-12) Elephant in geographical and cosmographical works/ Traveler’s
reports/ Alexander romances..................................................................................287
A) Ethnographic works.........................................................................................287
B) The elephant as geographic sign in mappa mundi...........................................291
C) Sea elephant.....................................................................................................294
6-12) An Arabic book on animals.............................................................................296
6-13) The elephant in scientific approach in encyclopedic works............................298
6-14) Anatomy of the elephant..................................................................................303
A) trunk.................................................................................................................303
B) Elephants dancing, kneeling and being tied. ...................................................304
6-15) Elephant representation between realism and fantasy.....................................305
A) Gothic realism and the elephant..................................................................... 306
B) Non realistic representation.............................................................................313
6-5) Conclusion.........................................................................................................314
General Conclusion.................................................................................................317
Bibliography............................................................................................................327
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Preface

The relationship between men and animals seems nowadays less strong than in earlier
times, especially amongst people living in cities, except for those with domestic animals
as cats and dogs. Contact with wild animals and relationships with non-pet domestic
animals have become something particular for individuals engaged in special
professions or who live in a special environment.
Yet, as John Berger tells in his excellent treatise “Why Look at Animals”,1 before
the process of rupture between man and nature, started in the 19th century Western
Europe and North America, animals were with man at the centre of his world. Man
depended upon animals in terms of food, labor, transport and material for clothing and
tools.
Animals were, however, not only suppliers of work and materials, but initially they
entered man’s imagination as messengers and promises, according to Berger. They had
magical oracular or sacrificial functions. They were intercessors between man and his
origin, between this world and another world. Thus they constitute stages of
transmigration of the souls in many cultures.2
Animals were also the primary subject matter for painting. The visual representation
of animals has a long history, much longer than that of plants. Humans have been
drawing animals since the Paleolithic Age, as we see in the caves in southern France
(Dordogne, Lot and northern foothills of Pyrenees), northern Spain (Cantabrian
Mountains),3 southern Spain (near Malaga and Cadiz), Rhone Valley, southern Italy, in
northern and southern Africa, and in the northern regions of Eurasia. Recently, with new
discoveries of cave pictures, we know that animal representation dates back to 48,000
BCE.
The people of Aurignacian culture left animal engravings and paintings in the
caves. Among them, the mammoth stands out. One of the peoples that contributed to
Aurignacian culture (45,000 to 35,000 years ago) was the Gravettians who preyed on
the mammoth in Siberia and in eastern and western Europe. The subjects of the pictures
were almost always animals of prey on which the nomadic hunter tribes depended on

1 John Berger, Why Look at Animals?, New York, Penguin Books, 2009, p. 12.
2 Ibid., pp. 15-16.
3 Caves containing palaeolithic mural art such as Chauvet, Lascaux or Altamira are
concentrated in Franco-Cantabrian region developed in three main phases (Aufignacian,
Solutrea and Magdalenian).

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