Elements of Ecology

746 Pages·2013·40.992 MB·English

by  Isobel Smith, Thomas S., Smith, Robert Leo, Waters

ELEMENTS OF
E C O LO GY
CANADIAN EDITION
THOMAS M. SMITH
ROBERT LEO SMITH
ISOBEL WATERS
Toronto
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Library and Archives Canada Cataloguing in Publication
Smith, T. M. (Thomas Michael), 1955-
Elements of ecology / Thomas M. Smith, Robert Leo
Smith and Isobel Waters. - 1st ed.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 978-0-321-51201-7
1. Ecology. I. Smith, Robert Leo
II. Waters, Isobel III. Title.
QH541.S65 2012 577 C2012-903757-5
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ISBN 978-0-321-51201-7
Brief Contents
Preface xx
Chapter 1 The Nature of Ecology 1
PART 1 The Physical Environment 18
Chapter 2 Climate 20
Chapter 3 The Aquatic Environment 39
Chapter 4 The Terrestrial Environment 57
PART 2 The Organism and Its Environment 74
Chapter 5 Ecological Genetics 76
Chapter 6 Plant Adaptations to the Environment 100
Chapter 7 Animal Adaptations to the Environment 126
Chapter 8 Life History Patterns 158
PART 3 Populations 180
Chapter 9 Properties of Populations 182
Chapter 10 Population Growth 201
Chapter 11 I ntraspecific Population Regulation 221
Chapter 12 M etapopulations 239
PART 4 Species Interactions 254
Chapter 13 I nterspecific Competition 256
Chapter 14 P redation 279
Chapter 15 P arasitism and Mutualism 308
PART 5 Community Ecology 330
Chapter 16 C ommunity Structure 332
Chapter 17 C ommunity Dynamics 362
Chapter 18 L andscape Ecology 385
PART 6 Ecosystem Ecology 4 06
Chapter 19 S YSTEMS ECOLOGY 408
Chapter 20 E cosystem Energetics 427
Chapter 21 D ecomposition and Nutrient Cycling 447
Chapter 22 B iogeochemical Cycles 473
iii
iv BRIEF CONTENTS
PART 7 E cological Biogeography 496
Chapter 23 T errestrial Ecosystems 498
Chapter 24 A quatic Ecosystems 527
Chapter 25 Coastal and Wetland Ecosystems 547
PART 8 H uman Ecology 564
Chapter 26 P opulation Growth and Sustainability 566
Chapter 27 C onservation Ecology 593
Chapter 28 G lobal Climate Change 622
References R-1
Glossary G-1
Credits C-1
Index I-1
Contents
Preface xx
Chapter 1 The Nature of Ecology 1
1.1 ECOLOGY DEFINED: Ecology Studies Organisms Interacting with Their
Environment 2
1.2 HISTORY OF ECOLOGY: Ecology Is Rooted in Many Scientific Disciplines 3
1.3 ORGANISMS AND ECOSYSTEMS: Organisms Interact with the Environment
within Ecosystems 3
1.4 ECOLOGICAL HIERARCHY: Ecology Operates at Many Levels, from the
Individual to the Biosphere 4
1.5 IMPORTANCE OF SCALE: Ecologists Study Pattern and Process at
Different Scales 5
1.6 ECOLOGY AS A SCIENCE: Ecologists Investigate Nature by Using the
Scientific Method 6
(cid:2) QUANTIFYING ECOLOGY 1.1: Classifying Ecological Data 8
1.7 MODELS IN ECOLOGY: Mathematical and Descriptive Models Allow
Predictions 9
1.8 UNCERTAINTY AND VARIATION: Ecological Phenomena Exhibit
Uncertainty and Variation 10
(cid:2) QUANTIFYING ECOLOGY 1.2: Displaying Ecological Data 11
(cid:2) ECOLOGICAL ISSUES: The Human Factor 13
1.9 AN INTERDISCIPLINARY SCIENCE: Ecology Has Strong Ties to Many
Other Fields 14
1.10 DUAL FOCUS: Both the Individual and the Ecosystem Are Basic Units
of Nature 14
Summary 15 • Key Terms 15 • Study Questions 16
• Further Readings 16
PART 1 The Physical Environment 18
Chapter 2 Climate 20
2.1 SOLAR RADIATION: Solar Energy Is Subject to Various Fates Before
It Is Intercepted by Earth 21
2.2 RADIATION AND TEMPERATURE: Latitudinal and Seasonal Radiation
Patterns Affect Temperature 23
2.3 ELEVATION AND TEMPERATURE: Air Temperature in the Troposphere
Decreases with Elevation 24
2.4 ATMOSPHERIC CIRCULATION: Global Circulation of Air Masses Affects
Climate 26
2.5 OCEAN CURRENTS: Solar Energy, Wind, and Earth’s Rotation Create
Ocean Currents 27
2.6 HUMIDITY: Temperature Influences the Moisture Content of Air 28
2.7 PRECIPITATION: Movements of Air Masses Create Global Precipitation
Patterns 29
2.8 SNOW AND ICE: Frozen Precipitation Has Many Ecological Effects 31
2.9 EFFECTS OF TOPOGRAPHY: Landforms Influence Regional and Local
Precipitation 31
2.10 IRREGULAR CLIMATIC VARIATION: Earth Experiences Significant
Irregular Variation in Climate 31
v
vi CONTENTS
2.11 MICROCLIMATES: Local Microclimates Define the Conditions
Experienced by Individuals 33
(cid:2) ECOLOGICAL ISSUES: Urban Microclimates 34
Summary 36 • Key Terms 37 • Study Questions 37
• Further Readings 37
Chapter 3 The Aquatic Environment 39
3.1 PROPERTIES OF WATER: The Unique Properties of Water Determine Its
Ecological Importance 40
3.2 LIGHT IN WATER: Light Quantity and Quality Vary with Water Depth 42
3.3 WATER TEMPERATURE: The Effect of Water Depth on Temperature
Varies Seasonally 42
3.4 WATER AS A SOLVENT: Many Substances Dissolve Readily in Water 4 4
3.5 OXYGEN IN WATER: Abiotic and Biotic Factors Affect the O Content
2
of Water 44
(cid:2) RESEARCH IN ECOLOGY: The Extreme Environment of Hydrothermal Vents 46
3.6 WATER ACIDITY: A Complex Sequence of Carbon Reactions Affects
Aquatic pH 48
3.7 WATER CYCLE: Water Circulates between Earth and the Atmosphere 48
3.8 WATER MOVEMENTS: Currents and Waves Shape Freshwater and Marine
Habitats 50
(cid:2) ECOLOGICAL ISSUES: Our Disappearing Groundwater Resources 51
3.9 TIDES: Tide Action Dominates Marine Coastal Habitats 53
3.10 ESTUARIES: Transition Areas between Freshwater and Saltwater Are
Unique Habitats 53
Summary 54 • Key Terms 55 • Study Questions 55
• Further Readings 56
Chapter 4 The Terrestrial Environment 57
4.1 LIFE ON LAND: Terrestrial Habitats Present Challenges and
Opportunities 58
4.2 LIGHT AND VEGETATION: Vegetative Cover Influences the Vertical
Light Profile 59
(cid:2) QUANTIFYING ECOLOGY 4.1: Measuring Light Attenuation 61
4.3 SOIL DEFINED: Soil Is the Foundation upon Which All Terrestrial Life
Depends 62
4.4 SOIL FORMATION: Weathering Initiates Soil Formation, Which Is
Affected by Six Factors 63
4.5 SOIL PROPERTIES: Soils Differ in Physical Traits 64
4.6 SOIL HORIZONS: Soil Has Distinct Horizontal Layers 64
4.7 SOIL MOISTURE: Water-Holding Capacity Is a Vital Property of Soils 66
4.8 SOIL FERTILITY: Ion Exchange Capacity Affects Soil Fertility 66
(cid:2) ECOLOGICAL ISSUES: Have We Passed Peak Soil? 67
4.9 SOIL TYPES: Different Processes Produce Different Soil Types 69
Summary 71 • Key Terms 72 • Study Questions 72
• Further Readings 72
PART 2 T he Organism and Its Environment 74
Chapter 5 Ecological Genetics 76
5.1 ADAPTATIONS: Natural Selection Promotes Adaptive Traits 77
5.2 GENES: Adaptations Are Coded by Genes, the Basic Units of
Inheritance 77
5.3 PHENOTYPES: Genotype Expression Is Affected by the Environment 78
CONTENTS vii
5.4 GENETIC VARIATION: Allele and Genotype Frequencies Differ within and
among Populations 79
5.5 TYPES OF NATURAL SELECTION: Natural Selection Can Be Directional,
Stabilizing, or Disruptive 79
5.6 EVOLUTIONARY PROCESSES: Various Processes Disrupt the Hardy–
Weinberg Equilibrium 81
(cid:2) ECOLOGICAL ISSUES: Selecting for Antibiotic Resistance 82
5.7 GENETIC DIFFERENTIATION: Natural Selection Alters Genetic Variation
among Populations of Widely Distributed Species 84
5.8 TRADE-OFFS AND CONSTRAINTS: Adaptations Entail Ecological
Compromises 85
(cid:2) RESEARCH IN ECOLOGY: Dynamic Evolution in Sticklebacks 87
5.9 SPECIATION: Evolution Can Lead to the Emergence of New
Species 89
5.10 HYBRIDIZATION: Hybridization Can Prevent or Promote Speciation 91
5.11 ABSENCE OF PERFECTION: No Organism Is Perfectly Adapted to Its
Environment 93
5.12 PHENOTYPIC PLASTICITY: Organisms Respond to Environmental
Variation at the Individual and Population Levels 94
Summary 97 • Key Terms 98 • Study Questions 98
• Further Readings 99
Chapter 6 Plant Adaptations to the Environment 100
6.1 CARBON METABOLISM: Photosynthesis Converts CO into Simple
2
Sugars 101
6.2 IMPACT OF LIGHT: Photosynthetic Rate Varies with Light Intensity 102
6.3 GAS EXCHANGE: Plants Exchange CO and HO Vapour with the
2 2
Atmosphere 103
6.4 WATER MOVEMENT: Water Follows a Free-Energy Gradient from the Soil
through the Plant to the Atmosphere 103
6.5 AQUATIC PHOTOSYNTHESIS: Some Aquatic Photoautotrophs Utilize
Bicarbonate 106
6.6 PLANT TEMPERATURE: Plants Exchange Heat Energy with Their
Environment 106
6.7 CARBON ALLOCATION: Plants Allocate Net Photosynthetic Carbon G ain
to New Tissues 107
6.8 INTERDEPENDENCE OF ADAPTATIONS: Plant Adaptations Reflect
Responses to Multiple Factors 108
6.9 ADAPTATIONS TO LIGHT: Shade Tolerance Reflects Genotype and
Acclimation 109
(cid:2) QUANTIFYING ECOLOGY 6.1: Calculating Plant Growth Rate 111
6.10 ADAPTATIONS TO DROUGHT: Many Adaptations Help Plants Cope with
Limited Water 113
6.11 ADAPTATIONS TO TEMPERATURE: Plants Have Various Adaptations for
Surviving Extreme Temperatures 116
6.12 ADAPTATIONS TO MINERALS: Conservative Strategies Help Plants
Tolerate Infertile Sites 118
6.13 ADAPTATIONS TO FLOODING: Submerged Substrates Impose O Stress
2
on Plants 121
6.14 PERIODICITY: Many Plants Have Predictable Daily and Seasonal Activity
Patterns 122
Summary 123 • Key Terms 124 • Study Questions 124
• Further Readings 125
viii CONTENTS
Chapter 7 Animal Adaptations to the Environment 126
7.1 BODY SIZE: Size Imposes a Fundamental Constraint on Evolution 127
7.2 FOOD ACQUISITION: Animals Acquire Energy and Nutrients by Different
Strategies 129
7.3 NUTRITIONAL REQUIREMENTS: Animals Meet Most Nutritional Needs
from Their Diet 131
7.4 OXYGEN UPTAKE: Structural Adaptations Facilitate O Uptake 133
2
7.5 HOMEOSTASIS: Regulation of Internal Conditions Involves Negative
Feedback 134
7.6 THERMAL EXCHANGE: Animals Exchange Heat Energy with Their
Environment 134
(cid:2) QUANTIFYING ECOLOGY 7.1: Heat Exchange and Temperature Regulation 136
7.7 POIKILOTHERMY: Poikilotherms Rely on External Heat Sources 138
7.8 HOMEOTHERMY: Homeotherms Reduce Thermal Constraints by
Regulating Body Temperature 140
7.9 TRADE-OFFS IN THERMAL REGULATION: Endothermy and Ectothermy
Have Benefits and Costs 141
(cid:2) RESEARCH IN ECOLOGY: Prehistoric Snakes as Paleothermometers 143
7.10 HETEROTHERMY: Some Species Practise Both Ectothermy and
Endothermy 145
7.11 TEMPERATURE EXTREMES: Animals Have Adaptations for Extreme Heat
or Cold 147
7.12 SNOW: Adaptations Allow Animals to Benefit from Snow Cover and
Reduce Its Negative Impacts 149
7.13 WATER BALANCE: Terrestrial Animals Are Constrained by Water Uptake
and Loss 149
7.14 OSMOTIC BALANCE: Aquatic Animals Face Problems of Water and Salt
Balance 150
7.15 WATER DEPTH: Aquatic Animals Have Specialized Adaptations to Deep
Water 151
7.16 PERIODICITY: Daily and Seasonal Light Cycles Influence Animal
Activity 151
Summary 154 • Key Terms 156 • Study Questions 156
• Further Readings 157
Chapter 8 Life History Patterns 158
8.1 TYPES OF REPRODUCTION: Reproduction May Be Sexual or Asexual 159
8.2 MODES OF SEXUAL REPRODUCTION: Sexual Organisms Are Unisexual or
Hermaphroditic 160
8.3 MATING SYSTEMS: Resource Supply Affects the Adaptive Value of
Mating Systems 162
8.4 SEXUAL SELECTION: Acquiring Mates Involves Intrasexual and/or
Intersexual Selection 163
(cid:2) RESEARCH IN ECOLOGY: Sexual Conflict and the Coevolutionary Arms Race 165
8.5 IMPACT OF RESOURCES: Females May Choose Mates Based on Resource
Availability 167
8.6 REPRODUCTIVE EFFORT: Species Vary in the Time and Energy Allocated
to Reproduction 168
(cid:2) QUANTIFYING ECOLOGY 8.1: Interpreting Trade-Offs 170
8.7 REPRODUCTIVE TIMING: Differences in Timing of Reproduction Entail
Trade-offs 171
8.8 REPRODUCTIVE OUTPUT: Parental Traits and Food Supply Affect
Fecundity 171