Table Of ContentELECTRONICS RELIABILITY
AND
MEASUREMENT TECHNOLOGY
Nondestructive Evaluation
detidE yb
Joseph S. Heyman
ASAN yelgnaL hcraeseR retneC
,notpmaH ainigriV
NOY ES DATA CORPORATION
Park Ridge, New Jersey, U.S.A.
Copyright 01988 by Noyes Data Corporation
Library of Congress Catalog Card Number 88-25395
ISBN: O-8155-1171-X
Printed in the United States
Published in the United States of America by
Noyes Data Corporation
Mill Road, Park Ridge, New Jersey 07656
10987654321
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Electronics reliability and measurement technology.
“The Electronics Reliability and Measurement
Technology Workshop was held June 3 through 5, 1986
at NASA Langley Research Center”--
Bibliography: p.
Includes index.
1. Integrated circuits--Testing--Congresses.
2. Integrated circuits--Reliability--Congresses.
3. Non-destructive testing--Congresses. I. Heyman,
Joseph S. II. Electronics Reliability and Measurement
:
Technology Workshop (1986 NASA Langley Research
Center)
TK7874.E486 1988 621.381’028’7 88-25395
ISBN O-8155-1 171-X
Preface
The Electronics Reliability dna tnemerusaeM Technology Workshop was held in June 6891 ta
ASAN yelgnaL Research retneC dna was presented with eht cooperation fo eht National ytiruceS
Industrial Association ,)AISN( ,ASAN eht United setatS Air Force (USAF), dna eht Aerospace -nI
yrtsud Association .)AIA( This ambitious meeting was held ot enimaxe eht .S.U electronics indus-
yrt with particular focus no reliability dna state-of-the-art .ygolonhcet The goals fo eht pohskrow
were:
To edivorp a forum for gniyfitnedi secnavda in measurement science dna tech-
ygolon for evitcurtsednon noitaulave in electronics, ot bring common measure-
ment problems ot a critical focus, dna ot encourage devorpmi ygolonhcet ot
eveihca higher ,ytilauq ecnahne ,ytivitcudorp dna foster interaction among
,tnemnrevog ,yrtsudni dna ytisrevinu .elpoep
nI addition, eht pohskrow dah specific objectives. suoivbO objectives included ot evorpmi reli-
,ytiliba ,dleiy performance, ,deeps dna ytisned dna ot reduce failure rates, yreviled time, dna cost.
A less suoivbo evitcejbo was ot learn woh ot make these improvements faster naht world compe-
tition or eb forced ot accept second-class market dna security positions. The mechanisms ot
eveihca these objectives included improving evitcurtsednon noitaulave measurement science for
eht electronics ,yrtsudni consolidating generic research, dna gnidivorp a mechanism for retteb
collaboration among ,yrtsudni ,tnemnrevog dna ytisrevinu laboratories. A major question in-
devlov tahw roles ,ASAN ,FASU universities, dna yrtsudni should evah in improving eht measure-
ment science/nondestructive noitaulave ygolonhcet essential ot maintain world leadership in
aerospace electronics.
The findings fo eht pohskrow addressed suoirav aspects fo eht yrtsudni from wafers ot parts ot
assemb\ies. nevE hguoht ereht was taerg ytisrevid thguorb ot eht meeting yb eht yletamixorppa
57 ,tnemnrevog ,yrtsudni dna ytisrevinu participants, a strong theme was :tnerappa The .S.U
electronics industries are facing a crisis taht yam netaerht their ,ecnetsixe dna this crisis is,a result
fo complex issues.
For eht U .S electronics industries ot ,ecnavda it is ton sufficient ot evlos specific problems; ew
should ,poleved literally, na acceleration in eht learning evruc for electronic dna materials proper-
ties dna for eht control fo manufacturing processes. The speed fo our learning sdneped no our
ytiliba ot wonk tahw ew evah erofeb us. Micromeasurements show us taht our beautiful polished
surfaces can eb hguor terrains strewn with “boulders.” Physics models show us taht uniform
electrical fields can eb complex dna tnedneped no defects.
evitatitnauQ measurements are eht ylno yaw ew can yfitnedi where ew are. For these reasons, it is
important ot wonk which physical, chemical, dna electrical properties are critical dna ot tahw reso-
lution yeht must eb determined. We must build eht instruments taht will evig us those answers dna
iiv
viii Preface
make those instruments elbaliava ot eht .S.U electronics industries ot evlos their generic problems.
Other major research areas evah neeb depoleved in a evitarepooc fashion. ygrene-hgiH research
groups utilize national labs; industries requiring technical standards use eht National uaeruB fo
sdradnatS (NBS) labs; aerospace research groups utilize ASAN dna Air Force labs. We should krow
ot yfitnedi mechanisms for collaboration in electronic evitcurtsednon noitaulave (ENDE) measure-
ment science ot evorpmi performance, ,dleiy dna reliability fo electronics while remaining com-
evititep in eht world market
nI eht evitucexE yrammuS fo Findings dna Recommendations, yek problem areas taht were singled
tuo for noitnetta are identified dna eht action items taht will krow drawot their resolution are rec-
ommended. nevE hguoht eht conference was ylhgih ,detar it dah eno flaw taht amplified eht per-
deviec problem: a small ecnadnetta yb eht manufacturers fo integrated circuit )CI( .secived Con-
snoitasrev with eht manufacturers taht dednetta eht pohskrow detniop ot eht problem fo curtailed
levart in eht electronics industries thguorb no yb their present economic .nrutnwod
tI is eht epoh fo eht conference planners dna those in ecnadnetta taht this troffe will result in real
changes. To eb ,evitceffe ,revewoh eht problem must become a challenge fo level-hgih managers
ohw must kool ton ylno ta technical problems tub also ta cultural problems. evitavonnI dna levon
applications must evlove from within eht industries themselves with intercorporation cooperation
becoming eht norm. ,ytisrevinU industrial consortia, dna tnemnrevog laboratories can edivorp
mechanisms ot poleved na tnemnorivne suitable for solutions ot generic problems. A long-range
commitment ot such activities is yrassecen if ew are ot eveihca our former excellence in electronics.
The pohskrow was possible hguorht eht dedicated dna drah krow fo ,ynam with special sknaht ot
eht steering committee, eht pohskrow chairmen, dna .sM taP Gates ohw depleh run eht .pohskrow
Joseph .A namyeH
NOTICE
The material in this koob was deraperp as na account fo krow sponsored yb eht
National Aeronautics dna ecapS Administration yelgnaL Research ,retneC eht
.S.U Air Force ecapS Division, eht National ytiruceS Industrial Association, dna
eht Aerospace yrtsudnI Association. On this basis, eht Publisher does ton assume
yna responsibility or liability for errors or yna consequences arising from eht use
fo eht information contained herein. Publication does ton yfingis taht eht con-
tents necessarily reflect eht sweiv dna policies fo eht sponsoring agencies, organi-
zations, or eht Publisher. The inclusion or exclusion fo yna manufacturer’s prod-
uct in or from this koob shall ton eb construed as either lavorppa or lavorppasid
fo yna product or manufacturer yb sponsoring groups or eht Publisher.
The koob is dednetni for information .ylno Final determination fo eht suitability
fo yna information or product for use contemplated yb yna user, dna eht manner
fo taht use, is eht sole responsibility fo eht user. tI is suggested taht enoyna in-
gnidnet ot yler no yna recommendation fo materials or equipment mentioned in
this publication should yfsitas himself as ot such suitability, dna taht eh can
meet all applicable ytefas dna health standards. We ylgnorts recommend taht
users kees dna erehda ot eht manufacturer’s or supplier’s current instructions
for handling each material or equipment yeht use.
Contents and Subject Index
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY OF FINDINGS DNA .SNOITADNEMMOCER ............... I.
Global yrtsudnI Issues ............................................. I.
Awareness .................................................. ..l
Fragmentation fo Resources ....................................... I.
devorpmI tnemerusaeM Science dna Technology. ......................... I.
etauqedanI noitamrofnI dna ataD .egnahcxE ............................ 2.
deepS fo Technology Transfer. ..................................... 2.
gnirutcafunaM Science Education. ................................... 2.
Statistical Process Control. ........................................ 2.
Technical snoitagitsevnI yb .SBN .................................... 2.
Wafers ...................................................... 3...
Determining ytilauQ fo xelpmoC CI .seciveD ............................ 3.
Particle tnemerusaeM dna Contamination Control ......................... 3.
enihcaM Vision tnempoleveD dna Electron ypocsorciM ecafruS-buS gnigamI
.tnempoleveD ............................................... 3.
Whole Wafer Scanning Electron Microscope IMES( noitcepsnI ................. 3.
Wafer leveL Reliability Testing. ..................................... 4.
Test Chips. .................................................. 4.
Second-Generation Computer-Aided gnirutcafunaM )MAC( erawtfoS ............ 4.
Parts. ........................................................ 4.
ataD Source for dradnatS dna Nonstandard Electronic Parts .................. 4.
Design for Testability. ........................................... 5.
Reliability fo GaAs s’CI .......................................... 5.
Particle Contamination. ........................................... 5.
Pre-Cap Visual .noitcepsnI ........... . ............................ 5.
Failure Analysis .................. ............................. . 5.
Assemblies. ..................................................... 5.
tnemerusaeM Science ytilauQ Assurance (QA) ........................... 5.
Process Control. ............................................... 5.
etauqedA Trade-Offs for decnavdA Technology .......................... 6.
Communication dna Technology egnahcxE ............................. 6.
Contamination Detection ......................................... 6.
dnoB .noitcepsnI .............................................. 6.
MEASUREMENT SCIENCE AND MANUFACTURING SCIENCE RESEARCH. . . . . . . . . . . .7
D. Ho ward Phillips
xi
x Contents and Subject index
TheMembersDollar .............................................. ..g
SRC Structure .................................................. .9
An Industry View of the Future Direction of Manufacturing Science (Through 1995)
Generated by the TAB Manufacturing Sciences Committee. ................... 10
Future Directions of the Manufacturing Sciences Program. ..................... 10
Major Trends-Semiconductors ...................................... .I1
Equipment Implications. .......................................... .I1
....................................
Semiconductor Equipment Business 12
Semiconductor Capital Investment Plans ................................. 12
...........................................
Worldwide Sales Forecast 13
..................................
1985 Semiconductor Equipment Sales. 13
............................... 4I.
Major Trends-Semiconductor Equipment
.................................................... 4I.
Programs.
Manufacturing Sciences Principal Thrusts. ................................ 15
The SRC/University of Michigan Program in Automated Semiconductor
................................................ 5I.
Manufacturing
Manufacturing Sciences Significant Accomplishments. ........................ 16
..... 7I.
NONDESTRUCTIVE SEM FOR SURFACE AND SUBSURFACE WAFER IMAGING.
Roy H. Propst, C. Robert Bagnell, Edward I. Cole Jr., Brian G. Davies, Frank A.
DiBianca, Darryl G. Johnson, William . Oxford, and Craig A. Smith
.................................................. 7I.
Introduction.
Image Processing Storage and Retrieval .................................. 17
................................................ 7I.
Introduction.
Progress.....................................................18
Image Acquisition and Storage. ................................... 18
....................
General Processing Routines and Image Data Analysis 18
..................................... 02.
Image Information Display
........................
Time Resolved Capacitive Coupling Voltage Contrast. 20
................................................ 02.
Introduction.
............................................. 12.
Signal Generation
................................ 12.
Data Acquisition and Voltage Results
........................................ 32.
Modeling of Decay Data.
........................................... 42.
Depth Measurement.
Conclusions..................................................2 5
...................... 52.
Nondestructive Subsurface Imaging of Semiconductors.
................................................ 52.
Introduction.
.................................... 62.
Experimental Progress to Date.
Conclusions..................................................2 7
................................................... 82.
References.
SURFACE INSPECTION-RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT. .................... .34
. S. Ba tchelder
..................................................
Introduction. .34
Trends in Surface Analysis ......................................... 34
.................................
New Front End Detection Techniques. :35
..............................................
Tool Development. .35
................................................ 53.
Research Topics
SENSORS DEVELOPED FOR IN-PROCESS THERMAL SENSING AND IMAGING. . . . . . . .37
I. H. Choi and K. D. Wise
References, . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . _ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .39
WAFER LEVEL RELIABILITY FOR HIGH-PERFORMANCE VLSI DESIGN. . . . . . . . .42
Bryan J. Root and James D. Seefeldt
stnetnoC dna Subject xednI ix
..................................................
Introduction. .43
............................................... 44.
Wafer Level Tests
................................... 44.
Wafer Level Electromigration Tests.
tnatropmI Considerations in eht tnempoleveD fo Accelerated Wafer leveL Tests .... 44.
Implementation fo eht Test. ...................................... 54.
Electromigration Test Structure. ................................... 64.
......................................... 74.
Mobile Ion Contamination
Schottky Diode Structures ......................................... .49
...................................... 15.
Wafer Level Device Reliability.
........................................ 35.
Future Wafer Level Testing.
Conclusions....................................................5 3
References.....................................................5 4
. . . . .
WAFER LEVEL RELIABILITY TESTING: AN IDEA WHOSE TIME HAS COME 55
0. D. Trapp
......................................... . . . . .
Planting Seeds. 55
......................................... . . . .
Initial Results. 55
................... . . .
With or Without Wafer Level Reliability Testing 56
. . .
CAR ................................................ 56
........................................ . . . .
1986 Workshop. 57
.................
MICRO-FOCUS X-RAY IMAGING .60
Michael Juha
........................... . . . . . . . .
Introduction. 60
......... . . . . . . . . . .
The Need for Solder Quality Inspection. 60
................. . . . . . . . .
Stress and Electrical Testing 60
........................ . . . . . . . . .
Visual Inspection. 61
..................... . . . . . . . . .
Structural Inspection. 61
...
Developing a Solder Quality Inspection Machine. 61
.........
Results Achieved with the First Machine 62
.....
The Importance of Accept/Reject Thresholds. 62
The”StructuraI” Solder Quality Standards Problem. 63
............................
Conclusions 64
................... . . . .
MEASUREMENT OF OPAQUE FILM THICKNESS 68
R. L. Thomas, . Jaarin, C. Re yes, I. C. Oppenheim, L. D. Fa vro, and P. K. Kuo
......................................... .........
Introduction. 68
.......... .........
Description of Thermal Waves and Experimental Technique 68
......................
Thermal Diffusivity of an Isotropic Solid. ......... 69
................
Theoretical Framework for Thin Film Calculations ......... 69
....
Numerical Calculations and Experimental Results: Cu Film on Glass ......... 69
................................
Summary and Conclusions ......... 70
.......................................... .........
References. 70
INTELLIGENT LASER SOLDERING INSPECTION AND PROCESS CONTROL. ...... 97
Riccardo Vanzetti
Introduction. ................................................ 97
Novel Approach: Thermal Flow ................................... 97
.......................................
The Laser/Inspect System. 80
..............................................
Statistical Data. 81
.......................................
Inspecting Tab Assemblies. 82
........................................
Intelligent Laser Solderer 82
iix stnetnoC dna tcejbuS xednI
RUPTURE TESTING FOR THE YTILAUQ CONTROL OF ELECTRODEPOSITED
COPPER INTERCONNECTIONS IN HIGH-SPEED, HIGH-DENSITY CIRCUITS ......... 98.
Louis Zakraysek
Introduction. .................................................. 98.
Type of Interconnecting Material. .................................... 09.
The Control of Microcracking in epyT E .reppoC .......................... 29.
Hot erutpuR gnitseT ............................................. 49.
cimanyD erutpuR .tseT ......................................... 59.
erutpuR-peerC .tseT ........................................... 69.
lacinahceM gnitseT fo lioF ....................................... 69.
Setting Quality Control Standards-Dynamic Rupture ....................... 89.
Foil Characterization. .......................................... 001
PTH Copper Characterization ..................................... 101
..............................
Quality Control by Creep-Rupture Testing. 103
.........................................
Summary and Conclusions 105
...................................................
References. 106
HETERODYNE HOLOGRAPHIC INTERFEROMETRY: HIGH-RESOLUTION
RANGING AND DISPLACEMENT MEASUREMENT. .......................... 701
James W: Wagner
Holographic Interferometry. ........................................ 701
...............................
Applications in Electronics (Documented) 108
Other Applications .............................................. 901
Homodyne Construction. .......................................... 011
..............................................
Homodyne Display 112
............................................
Heterodyne Recording 113
............................................
Contouring Using HHI 114
........................................
Quasi-Heterodyne Readout. 115
.................................................
Wear Contours 116
............................................
Heterodyne Readout. 117
Wear Contours .................................................. 911
........................................
Surface Acoustic Wavefront. 120
Advantages....................................................12 1
...................................................
Limitations 122
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
“WHOLE WAFER” SCANNING ELECTRON MICROSCOPY. 123
J. Oevaney
.............. . . . ., . ....... ...... .......
Historical Perspective. 123
........... . . . ....... ...... .......
Step Coverage Parameters. 124
........ . . . ....... ...... .......
Today’s Response by Industry. 124
................... .......
Choices/Status 125
................. .......
Courses of Action 126
. .......
Whole Wafer Scanning Exposes the Wafer. 126
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY OF FINDINGS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
.I IISNSDUGUELSSOT BRAYL
Um.iSc.r ocircuit thien emoefr gency staat e declare partCiocnifpearnetnsc e
industryi.m minenitps. osition a leafdreorms hiUp. S. industryo f tdTehhmeei se
in climates sociopolitfiacbvayol r able fostered accompTleicshhnmoelnotgsi cal
technoUl.oSg.y .s emiconodfu ctor ahead them tahrreu sting cRoiumn tries Pacific New
cooperation, ofa viennnuoevsa tion, opened be rampuisdtl y purposet o dedicaatnido n
aside. be turned toi s threatt hief albly interests be musrte cogInti zed any
that
U.S. thoef strength ttehcwiehen na okleongiincga l will industry semiconductor
aiblnus to country this in of living standardo f the a reducotinnil oyn not result
posturmei.l itawreya kened a severely
seniora-n d Offi(cCeErO ) ExecutiveC hief tha-t beilsi eved AI.t Awareness
while companies, manufacturing seomfi conductor persmoannnaegle ment operating level
own companies, thteoi rt hreat off oreigtnah wea re acutely aware be nmoaatyd equately
U.S. industry. thoef viability futuret he thrtoeofa tt he scWohpeer e of thteh e
woafy s gitvoe n been has thought inadetqhuaatt e appeaerxsi st, it does awareness
with it. dealing
a top-level sponsor shDoeufledn seo f Depa-r tTmheen t Recommendation
U.S. semiconducto2r5 tftorhpoe m pCeErOs onnaenld of senior-level briefing
and to situattiohoenf gravity the communitcoa teo rder in companmiaensu facturing
which are of some actions, correcftoirv e supporatn d in invomlavneamgeengmtee tn t
herein. recommended
circ(uIiCt) i-n otTfehm geurrlaett iepdl icityR eas ourcoefs is FrBa.g mentation
ItCh e working throughout agencies privatean dp ublic andu sers, manufacturers,
industry. or purrepsooslev eof. conmTomh oenrael iitsy efforts, Withuonuitt ed
status. intdou stry threats cooufn terhionpge liitst le there
efforts teocfh nical a consolidation chaNsmAhpSoi-Auo lnd Recommendation
lapbroirvaattoeran ide s. public andu sers, manufacturers,t he among particulIna r,
electraolnl- at caorned ucted that activities research scimeenacseusr ement generic
resources freeingd uplication, eliminatintgh us be consolciodualtde d, companies ics
with finesse, problems attack to on concenttroa te idnodours tfroyr thoep eninagn d
market. their improves that develoapmnde nt research proprietary
sponsor should agencies)o tohfe r cooperathtei on - NASA (with Recommendation
executpaeln adn taon d efforts consolipdraotmeodt e to conference national annual an
strategies.
seomfi conductor maarneya s- In Technology and MeaSscuireenmceen t C. Improved
assembly, and manufacturing parts electronicsa nd fnooutn d are elementsf aulty
item. gitonhnteeo whoarsk considerbaebfloer e process/ an Ofteinn termittent
faarber icatdeedv.i cmeas ny before caughtn ot is error assembly imprGorveeamte nts
mmaodree advancaedr,e sciences measurement if expectaedre and reliaybiiellidt y in
quantitative, control. a for afse edback line ftahber icatiobnr outgoh t and One
industrial accelefroart ed --andf oundatthieo n measure cwoahnnaent o t manage cannot
informaqtuiaonnt.i tativei s learning
develop should Agencies)o ther of cooperationt he NAS-A (with Recommendation
concentrating reliability electronics improved for tescchineonlcoeg ies measurement
tahned problems, near-teromn the focsuhso uld indusptrroyb lems, 2-to 5-year on the
1
2 Electronics Reliability dna tnemerusaeM Technology
should (SRCCo)r porationR esearch as Sesmuiccho nductor anudn icvoenrssoirttiieusm s,
problems. long-rtahnaegd ed ress
taebchunndiacTnahtle /-r e is ExchaDnagtea and IDn.f ormatiIonna dequate
however, sectors; parnidv ate public btohteh oicnc urraicntgi vity research
haphazardolcyc.u r of findings exchanges/sharing
forma- spearhead should orgpaunbilziact ionost her- and NASA Recommendation
groups. oft afsokc usedo perattaiinoodnn the in opesrhaotuel d groups These task
Rowe by the ForscpeoT,na ssokr ed LCionned uFcitnoer onnogwo ing as the spirit same
Center (DReAvDeCl)o.Ap imre nt not but incslhuodue ld groups taskt hese for Subjects
and wafer inspectiong,e ometry sub-microwmaefteerr contaminatitoon , be limited
definedb.e othteor s
industrsyu staint oe ssence -o fT itmhee is Transfer TecEh.n oloofg y Speed
viability. are equipmaeknnndto w-how substathnatti al rTehceo gcnoimzmeist tee
academidiaen.v eloped of hands thien tools wouldt rbeem endous capabSiulciht ies
thteo university from but transfers of technologyf,u rthetrhaen ce for industry
slowlya.n d ocsceulrd om markeetqpuliapcmee nt semiconductor
- Recommendation tech- rappriodm ote offtioc e an establish shTohuel dS RC
to universiatt ies developed equipmmeetnrto logy and manufacotfu ring nology transfer
marketplace. equipment semicotnhdeu cmtaoyrO ffice Utilization Technology NASA's
gmooodde l. ofaf er
key to is manufacturinign - ComEpdeutciattiivoenn ess SMcaiFne.un fcaec turing
survival. Ui.nSd.u stry the exiins t sciencmea nufacturing ICi n prodgerNgaorm ese
XC swthaiffch to gfrraodmu ates of trainedp onool henicse there saycsatdeemm,i c
factories. job. the on leiasrs nceide nce manuUfpna ocwt,u ring to
with urogfe ncy sense the ingcrreeaatsley shoul-d The SRC Recommendation
cur- science manufacturing establish towu intihv ersities collwahbiocirhsa ting it
this accomplish to schedmuillee stone acacne lerated establish sahnodu ld ricula
task.
which (iDn ebmyi ng' taught - The principles ControlP roceGs.s Statistical
of enhancementt hien iwkteeeryme s coinst rolled)a ttribuptreoosfc ess variability
improvementf.o r targeJtaepda nese indusqturailieinst y insure prinTchiepslee s
reduction, scrap through contacmoisnta nt iwnhsiucrhte usr n fn consistpernoccye,s s
yield, hpirgohd uct replrioadbuihclitig thy . pfroors pects iamnpdr oved
commit- the obvious, naorte specWihfii-lc es implementation Recommendation
of uasnedr s manufacturerXsC throughout promulgatiopno ssible fasteustrttegh eee s
specifaicnda tions sciencmea nufacturing in principles copnrtorcoels s statistical
writing.
NBS by H. InvesTteicghantiicoanls a is (NoBfS )S tandards BureauN Tahtei- o nal
resource. tneacthinoincaall noteworthy of ftuhteu re inisnu ring involvIetmse nt
expandegdr.e atlyb e to needs industUsr.eySm .i conductor the
EdwardsW:i lliam lDeming, Wiley Saonnds , John Samplinogf, Theory Some
1950.
