Table Of ContentElectronic Devices on Discrete Components
for Industrial and Power Engineering
© 2008 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
69828_FM.indd 1 12/17/07 10:49:52 AM
Electronic Devices on Discrete Components
for Industrial and Power Engineering
Vladimir Gurevich
Israel Electric Corp, Haifa
Boca Raton London New York
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Author
Vladimir Gurevich was born in Kharkov, Ukraine, in 1956. He re-
ceived an M.S.E.E. degree (1978) at the Kharkov TechnicalUniversity,
named after P. Vasilenko, and a Ph.D. degree (1986) at Kharkov Na-
tional Polytechnic University. His employment experience includes:
teacher, assistant professor and associate professor at Kharkov Techni-
cal University, and chief engineer and director of Inventor, Ltd. In
1994, he arrived in Israel and works today at Israel Electric Corp. as a
specialist of the Central Electric Laboratory. He is the author of more
than 140 professionalpapers and 4 books and holder ofnearly 120 pat-
ents inthe field ofelectricalengineering and power electronics. In2006
he was Honorable Professor with the Kharkov Technical University,
and since 2007 he has served as anexpert withthe TC-94 Committee of
InternationalElectrotechnicalCommission.
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© 2008 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
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Contents
Preface v
1 Solid-StateElectronicsElements.. ...... ...... ...... .... 1
1.1 SemiconductingMaterialsandp-n-Junction..... ...... .. 1
1.2 TheTransistor’sPrinciple... ..... ...... ...... ...... .. 7
1.3 SomeTransistorKinds ...... ...... ...... ...... ..... 9
1.4 BipolarTransistorGeneralModes..... ..... ...... ..... 18
1.5 TransistorDevicesinSwitchingMode . ...... ...... .... 24
1.6 Thyristors. ..... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... .... 31
1.7 ControlofThyristorsonDirectCurrent. ...... ...... ... 39
1.8 ControlofThyristorsonAlternatingCurrent..... ...... . 43
1.9 Diac,Triac,Quadrac ... ...... ...... ...... ...... ... . 44
2 ReedSwitches... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ..... . 49
2.1 WhatIsIt?..... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... .... 49
2.2 PolarizedandMemoryReedSwitches ... ...... ..... .. . 54
2.3 PowerReedSwitches . ...... ...... ..... ...... ...... 60
3 High-VoltageReedRelays.. ...... ..... ...... ...... . .. . 63
3.1 HVReedRelaysforLowCurrentDCCircuits..... ...... 63
3.2 HVReedRelaysforHighCurrentApplications... ....... 71
3.3 RelayRespondingtotheCurrentChangingRate... ...... 74
3.4 DifferentialHVReedRelay . . ...... ...... ...... ..... 75
3.5 Reed-BasedDevicesforCurrentMeasurementinHigh
PotentialCircuits.. ..... ...... ...... ...... ...... ... 76
3.6 Spark-ArrestingCircuitsforReedRelays .. ...... ...... . 78
4 ElementaryFunctionModules...... ...... ...... ....... 83
4.1 SwitchingDevices .. ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... 83
4.2 Generators,Multivibrators,Pulse-Pairs.. ...... ...... .. 97
4.3 Timers..... ...... ...... ...... ..... ...... ...... . . 104
4.4 LogicElements... ..... ...... ...... ...... ...... ... 107
4.5 OvercurrentandOvervoltageProtectionModules..... ... 111
4.6 VoltageStabilizersandRegulators... ...... ..... ...... 117
4.7 OtherFunctionalModulesforAutomaticDevices .. ...... 124
5 SimpleProtectiveRelaysonDiscreteComponents . ....... 131
5.1 UniversalOvercurrentProtectiveRelay .. ...... ...... . 131
5.2 SimpleVeryHigh-SpeedOvercurrentProtectionRelay . .. . 140
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© 2008 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
viii Contents
5.3 TheNewGenerationUniversalPurposeHybridReed-Solid-
StateProtectiveRelays . ...... ...... ...... ...... .... 154
5.4 AutomaticHigh-VoltageCircuitBreakers.... ...... .... 163
5.5 High-SpeedVoltageUnbalanceRelay . ...... ...... .... 167
5.6 ImpulseActionProtectiveRelay . ... ...... ...... ...... 169
6 ImprovementofMicroprocessor-BasedProtectiveRelays.. 173
6.1 PowerSupplyofMicroprocessor-BasedProtectiveRelays
atEmergencyMode .... ..... ...... ...... ...... ..... 173
6.2 IncreasingReliabilityofTripContactsinMicroprocessor-
BasedProtectiveRelays . ... ...... ...... ...... ...... 181
7 AutomaticDevicesforPowerEngineering. ...... ..... ... 197
7.1 ArcProtectionDeviceforSwitchboards6–24kV.. ..... 197
7.2 Automatic-ResetShortCircuitIndicatorfor6–24kVBus
Bars. ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ..... ...... . . 199
7.3 High-CurrentPulseTransducerforMetal-OxideSurge
Arrester.. ...... ...... ..... ...... ...... ...... .... 201
7.4 CurrentTransformers’ProtectionfromSecondaryCircuit
Disconnection... ...... ...... ..... ...... ...... .... 207
7.5 ASingle-PhaseShortCircuitIndicatorforInternalHV
CablesinMediumVoltageSubstation. ...... ...... .... 211
7.6 GroundCircuitFaultIndicatorforUndergroundHVCable
Network.... ..... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... .. 214
7.7 HVIndicatorsforSwitchgearsandSwitchboards..... .... 218
AppendixA1:High-SpeedMiniatureReedSwitches ... ....... . . 225
AppendixA2:High-VoltageVacuumReedSwitches.. ........ .. 233
AppendixA3:MercuryWettedReedSwitches..... .... ...... .. 245
AppendixA4:IndustrialDryReedSwitches.... ...... ....... .. 251
AppendixB1:High-VoltageBipolarTransistors.... ...... ...... 281
AppendixB2:High-VoltageDarlingtonTransistors. .... ...... .. 333
AppendixB3:High-VoltageFETTransistors . ...... ..... ...... 341
AppendixB4:High-VoltageIGBTTransistors... ...... . .. ..... 351
AppendixC:High-VoltageThyristors .. ..... ...... ........ .. 367
AppendixD:High-VoltageTriacs.... ...... ...... ... ...... .. 389
AppendixE:BilateralVoltage-TriggerSwitches. ...... . .. ..... 401
© 2008 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
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Preface
Integral microchips and microprocessors have come into our lives so swiftly
and completely that sometimes it seems that modern equipment simply cannot exist
without them, which is true. However, dependenceofmodern equipment on microe-
lectronicsandmicroprocessorsdoesnotmean thattherearenoproblemsinthisarea.
Theintegrityofmanyfunctions distributed earlier amongseparatedevices ofa com-
plex system in a single microprocessor leads to the reduction of system reliability
becausedamagetothemicroprocessor or toanynumber of peripheralelementsserv-
ing the microprocessor leads to failure of the whole system but not of its separate
functions as it was in pre-microprocessor time. Added tothis is theextra sensitivity
of microelectronic and microprocessor-based equipment to electromagnetic interfer-
ences (EMI) and the possibility of intentional remote actions breaking the normal
operation of the microprocessor-based devices (electromagnetic weapons, electro-
magnetic terrorism). Intensive investigations into the electromagnetic weapons field
arebeingcarriedoutin Russia,theU.S.,England,Germany,China,andIndia.Many
world-leading companies work intensively in this sphere creating new devices of
theseweapon systemsfunctioningatadistanceofseveraldozensofmeterstoseveral
kilometers, which while specialized in their use are still available to everybody (as
theyarefreelysoldonthemarket).
Theneed for specialized power supplies of microprocessors, different types of
memory, special input and output circuits, special software – in short, all of the
above-mentioned – has led to the situation where documentation and manufacturing
ofautomation deviceshasbecomeavailableonlytoserious companieshavingallthe
necessaryresourcesforthis.Developmenttendenciesofthisareaoftechniquemakeit
more and more unavailable to individual engineers and technicians wishing to apply
their knowledge and ingenuity to improve production or technological processes to
their companies. At the same time, lately in the market a number of new types of
small-size, discrete electronic components with previously inaccessible parameters
appeared.Theyareminiaturetransistorsmeantfor currentsofdozensofamperesand
voltages of1200 – 1600 V; miniaturevacuumreed switches with operational speeds
of milliseconds capable of sustaining voltages of 1,000 – 2,000 V; and other no less
interesting elements. These new discrete components serve as the basis for creating
industrialautomationandcontroldevicesthatarefeddirectlyfromnetworksof220–
250 V and work directly with input and output signals of the same voltage level.
Hybrid devices combining advantages of semiconductor (transistors, thyristors) and
electromechanical(reedswitches)elementsareofparticularinterest.
This book is concerned with the description of different functional units and
automationdevicesforindustryandelectricpowerengineeringimplementedbymod-
ern discrete electronic elements without using microelectronics and microprocessor-
based technologies. The devices described in this book turn out to be much simpler
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© 2008 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
vi Preface
and cheaper; theymay be produced not only by large companies, but even by inde-
pendentamateurs.Thisbookpresentsforthereaders’judgmentdozensofunusualbut
verysimplerealizabledevices, which maybeeasilycreated byanyengineer or tech-
nician wishing to improve automation systems. Some of the technical decisions pre-
sentedbytheauthormayserveasthebasisforthecreationofnewtypesofdevicesof
relayprotection and automation free from disadvantages of complex microelectronic
systems.
The book consists of seven chapters and appendices containing reference data.
Thefirst threechapters aredevoted tothetheoryand operating principles ofmodern
discretecomponentsdesignedforautomationdevices:transistors,thyristors,dinistors,
reedswitches, andhigh-voltagereedswitchrelays. Thefourth chapter describesdoz-
ens ofdifferentfunctionalmodules ofautomation systems incorporatingdiscreteele-
ments with direct supplyfrom 220 – 250 V networks: switching devices, generators
and multivibrators, timers, logic elements, elements sensitive to overcurrents and
overvoltages,voltageregulatorsandstabilizers,pulseexpanders,etc.Thefifth,sixth,
and seventh chapters aredevoted tothedescription ofconcreteexamples ofautoma-
tion devices for industryand electric power engineering based on discrete electronic
componentsandalsohybridones:semiconductorsandreedswitches.
Thebook makes a smooth transition from theoryand theproperties ofmodern
electronicelementsbymeansofexamination ofoperatingprinciplesandexamplesof
realization of separate functional units of automation devices to the description of
concreteexamplesofthosethatarefinishedandreadyfor use.Theauthor thinksthat
this approach to the material will make it possible for the readers not onlyto repeat
theconstructions that aredescribed, but tounderstandandmaster thegeneral princi-
ples of automation devices on discrete elements and to apply them in the future for
creation of new necessary constructions. As an aid to complete understanding, volu-
minous reference material has been included containing information about the most
moderncomponentsspeciallyselectedbytheauthorandclassifiedintheappendices.
© 2008 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
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1
Solid-State Electronic Elements
1.1 SEMICONDUCTINGMATERIALSANDP-N-JUNCTION
As is known, all substances depending on their electro-conductivity are divided
into three groups: conductors (usually metals) with a resistance of 10-6-10-3Ohm⋅cm,
dielectrics with a resistance of 109-1020 Ohm⋅cm, and semiconductors (many native-
grownandartificialcrystals)coveringanenormousintermediaterangeofvaluesofspe-
cificelectricalresistance.
Themainpeculiarityofcrystalsubstancesistypical,well-orderedatomicpacking
intopeculiar blocks – crystals.Each crystalhas several flat symmetricsurfacesandits
internalstructureisdeterminedbytheregularpositionalrelationshipofitsatoms,which
is called the lattice. Both in appearance and in structure, any crystal is like any other
crystal of the same given substance. Crystals of various substances are different. For
example, a crystal of table salt has the form of a cube. A single crystal may be quite
large in size or so small that it can only be seen with thehelp of a microscope. Sub-
stances having no crystal structureare called amorphous. For example, glass is amor-
phousincontrasttoquartz,whichhasacrystalstructure.
Amongthesemiconductorsthatarenowusedinelectronics,oneshouldpointout
germanium, silicon, selenium, copper-oxide, copper sulfide, cadmium sulfide, gallium
arsenide,andcarborundum.Toproducesemiconductorstwoelementsaremostlyused:
germaniumandsilicon.
In order tounderstand theprocesses taking placein semiconductors, it is neces-
saryto consider phenomenain the crystal structureof semiconductor materials, which
occur whentheiratomsareheld ina strictlydeterminedrelativeposition toeach other
due to weakly bound electrons on their external shells. Such electrons, together with
electrons ofneighboringatoms, formvalencebonds between theatoms. Electronstak-
ing part in such bonds are called valence electrons. In absolutely pure germanium or
silicon at verylowtemperaturestherearenofreeelectrons capableofcreating electric
current, because under such circumstances all four valence electrons of the external
shells ofeachatomthatcan takepartin theprocess ofchargetransfer aretoostrongly
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© 2008 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
2 Chapter1
heldbythevalencebounds.That’swhythatsubstanceisaninsulator(dielectric)inthe
fullsenseoftheword–itdoesnotletelectriccurrentpassatall.
Whenthetemperatureisincreased,duetothethermalmotionsomevalenceelec-
tronsdetachfromtheirbondsandcanmovealongthecrystallattice.Suchelectronsare
calledfreeelectrons.Thevalencebond from whichtheelectron isdetachediscalleda
hole. It possesses properties of a positive electric charge, in contrast to the electron,
whichhasanegative electriccharge.Themorethetemperatureis,themorethenumber
offreeelectronscapableofmovingalongthelattice,andthehighertheconductivityof
thesubstanceis.
Moving along the crystal lattice, free electrons may run across holes – valence
bonds missing someelectrons –and fill up these bonds. Such a phenomenon is called
recombination. At normal temperatures in the semiconductor material, free electrons
occurconstantly,andrecombinationofelectronsandholestakesplace.
If a piece of semiconductor material is put into an electric field by applying a
positive or negativeterminal to its ends, for instance, electrons will move through the
latticetowardsthepositiveelectrodeandholes–tothenegativeone.Theconductivity
ofa semiconductor can beenhanced considerablybyputtingspeciallyselectedadmix-
tures toit – metal or non-metal ones. In thelatticetheatoms of theseadmixtures will
replacesomeoftheatomsofthesemiconductors.Letusremindourselvesthatexternal
shellsofatomsofgermaniumandsilicon contain four valenceelectrons,andthatelec-
trons can onlybe taken from the external shell of theatom. In their turn the electrons
can be added onlytotheexternal shell,and themaximum number of electrons on the
externalshelliseight.
Whenanatomoftheadmixturethathasmorevalenceelectronsthanrequiredfor
valence bonds with neighboring atoms of the semiconductor, additional free electrons
capable ofmoving along thelatticeoccur on it. As aresult the electro-conductivityof
the semiconductor increases. As germanium and silicon belong to the fourth group of
theperiodictable of chemical elements, donors for them may be elements of the fifth
group,whichhavefiveelectronsontheexternalshellofatoms.Phosphorusarsenic,and
stibiumbelongtosuchdonors (donoradmixture).
Ifadmixtureatomshavefewer electronsthanneededfor valencebondswith sur-
roundingsemiconductoratoms,someofthesebondsturnouttobevacantandholeswill
occur inthem.Admixturesofthiskindarecalledp-typeonesbecausetheyabsorb(ac-
cept) free electrons. For germanium and silicon, p-type admixtures are elements from
thethird group of theperiodictable of chemical elements, external shells of atoms of
which contain three valence electrons. Boron, aluminum, gallium, and indium can be
consideredp-typeadmixtures (accepteradmixture).
In thecrystalstructureofa puresemiconductor all valencebonds ofneighboring
atoms turn out to be fully filled, and occurrence of free electrons and holes can be
caused onlybydeformation oflattice,arisingfromthermalor otherradiation.Because
ofthis,conductivityofapuresemiconductorisquitelowundernormalconditions.
Ifsomedonoradmixtureisinjected,thefour electronsoftheadmixture,together
with the samenumber in the filled valence, bond with thelatter. The fifth electron of
eachadmixtureatomappearstobe“excessive”or“redundant,”andthereforecanfreely
movealongthelattice.
When an accepter admixture is injected, only three filled valence bonds are
formedbetweeneachatomoftheadmixtureandneighboringatomsofthesemiconduc-
tor. To fill up the fourth, one electron is lacking. This valence bond appears to be va-
© 2008 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
