Table Of ContentElectric Vehicles for
Smart Cities
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Electric Vehicles for
Smart Cities
Trends, Challenges, and
Opportunities
EVANTHIA A. NANAKI
Department of Business Developmentand Technology,
CentreforEnergy Technologies,Aarhus University,
Herning,Denmark
Elsevier
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Dedication
To my son, Anthony
“TheScienceoftodayisthetechnologyoftomorrow”
E.Teller
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Contents
Acknowledgments xi
1. Introduction 1
1.1 SensingtheenergysceneryinthepostCOVID-era 1
1.2 Thefutureofmobility 2
1.3 Motivationforthebook 4
1.4 Aimandobjectivesofthebook 7
1.5 Structureofthebook 8
1.6 Concludingremarks 10
References 11
2. Electric vehicles 13
2.1 Introduction 13
2.2 Electricvehicletechnologies 15
2.2.1 Keytechnologiesofelectricmotors 16
2.2.2 Batteryelectricvehicles 19
2.2.3 Hybridelectricvehicles 20
2.2.4 Plug-inhybridelectricvehicles 24
2.2.5 Fuelcellelectricvehicles 26
2.3 Energysourcesinelectricvehicles 28
2.3.1 Energystorageunit 28
2.3.2 Energygenerationunit 33
2.4 Currentchargingtechnologyandavailablecharging
infrastructureworldwide 34
2.4.1 Electricvehicleschargingtechnology 34
2.4.2 Chargingpowerlevelsandinfrastructure 36
2.4.3 Typesofchargingsystems 37
2.5 Impactofelectricvehicleschargingonelectricpowergrid 39
2.6 Impactofvehicletogridtechnologytopowergrid 42
2.7 Concludingremarks 43
Listofabbreviations 43
References 44
vii
viii Contents
3. Electric vehiclecharging within smart cities 51
3.1 Introduction 51
3.2 Theconceptofthesmartcity 52
3.3 Charginginfrastructure 53
3.3.1 Typesofchargingsystems 54
3.3.2 Chargingpowerlevels 56
3.3.3 Standardization:Currenttrends 59
3.3.4 Communicationprotocols 62
3.4 Chargingeconomics 62
3.5 Smartcharging 64
3.5.1 Smartchargingstrategies 67
3.5.2 Smartgrid 69
3.5.3 Vehicle-to-grid 70
3.5.4 Challengesandissuesinvehicle-to-gridtechnology 78
3.6 Casestudies—worldwideprojects 78
3.6.1 Smartcharginginislandsystems 84
3.7 Concludingremarks 88
References 89
4. Market introductionof electricvehicles to urban areas 97
4.1 Introduction 97
4.2 Businessmodels 98
4.2.1 Businessmodelsintheautomotiveindustry:Theshiftto
businessinnovation 102
4.2.2 Businessmodelsforelectricvehicles 103
4.2.3 Businessmodelsforelectricvehicles:Anintegratedapproach 105
4.3 IntegratedinnovativebusinessmodelsforEVs(e-IIBMs):
Implementationofanovelconcept 111
4.4 Electricvehiclesmarketoverview 113
4.5 Factorsinfluencingtheadoptionofelectricvehiclesinurbanareas 115
4.5.1 Policydriversfortheimplementationofelectricvehicle
businessmodelsinurbanareas 116
4.6 Casestudiesofbusinessmodelsusedforthedeploymentof
electromobilityinurbanareas 121
4.6.1 Businesstoconsumerleasing 125
4.6.2 Businesstoconsumersalesorleasingwithbatteryswapping 125
4.6.3 Electricvehiclescarsharing 126
4.6.4 Electricvehiclegridnexusbusinessmodels 129
4.7 Concludingremarks 134
References 135
Contents ix
5. Climatechange mitigation and electric vehicles 141
5.1 Introduction 141
5.2 Transportaspartoftheenergysystem 145
5.3 Transportenergyconsumption 146
5.4 Emissionsfromthetransportationsector 148
5.5 Electricvehiclesandenergytransition:majorchallengesto
energytransition 149
5.6 Lifecycleassessment 151
5.6.1 Lifecycleassessmentandelectricvehicles 153
5.6.2 Lifecycleassessmentprinciples 156
5.6.3 Overviewofavehiclelifecycleassessmentstages 156
5.7 Comparativelifecycleassessmentofabatteryelectricvehicles
andaninternalcombustionenginevehicle—thecasestudyof
EuropeanUnion 169
5.7.1 Goalandscopedefinition 170
5.7.2 Lifecycleinventory 170
5.7.3 Resultsofcomparativelifecycleassessment 171
5.8 Concludingremarks 174
References 176
Furtherreading 180
6. Electric vehiclecapitals (cid:1)case studies 181
6.1 Introduction 181
6.2 Globalelectricvehiclesales:agrowingmarket 182
6.2.1 Charginginfrastructure:recentdevelopments 185
6.3 Electricvehicleadoptionpolicies:recentdevelopments 187
6.4 Europe 191
6.4.1 TheNetherlands 192
6.4.2 Spain 195
6.4.3 Norway 198
6.4.4 UnitedKingdom 204
6.5 UnitedStatesofAmerica 206
6.5.1 California 208
6.5.2 NewYorkCity 215
6.5.3 Seattle,Washington 218
6.6 China 220
6.6.1 Beijing 225
6.6.2 Shanghai 227
6.6.3 Shenzhen 228
6.6.4 Tianjin 230
