Table Of ContentEGYPTIAN RELIGIOUS SYMBOLS IN JUDAH AND ISRAEL
FROM 900 B.C.E. TO 587 B.C.E.: A STUDY OF SEAL
ICONOGRAPHY
by
FLORIS NICOLAS VERMEULEN
Submitted in accordance with the requirements
for the degree of
DOCTOR OF LITERATURE AND PHILOSOPHY
in the subject of
BIBLICAL ARCHAEOLOGY
at the
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTH AFRICA
SUPERVISOR: PROFESSOR WS BOSHOFF
FEBRUARY 2010
SUMMARY
When cultures meet, mutual influences and cultural exchanges are unavoidable.
Egypt’s contact with Syro-Palestine goes back to at least the Chalcolithic Period.
Egypt was a major role player in the region throughout the Bronze Age. The
discoveries at Ugarit have placed a lot of emphasis on possible Canaanite influences
on the religion of ancient Israel.
The purpose of this study is to investigate if cultural exchanges led to Egyptian
religious concepts being accepted in Israel and Judah during the period 900-587
B.C.E. (Iron IIB and C). For this reason the iconography on contemporary seals was
investigated. Symbols in ancient times, especially amongst illiterate societies, were
important instruments in conveying ideas and concepts. The Hebrew Bible abounds
with symbolism to illustrate the powers of Yahweh. Egyptian iconography on Hebrew
seals, in particular seal amulets, has been regarded by most biblical scholars as mere
decorations and the amulets regarded as ‘good luck’ charms.
Seal amulets were important instruments of magical ritual in ancient Egypt, where
there was no distinction between magic and religion. Biblical prohibitions against
magic show that in Israel and Judah, it was regarded as a form of idolatry, thus
religious rituals.
An important factor to be considered is the influence of Phoenicia on the region
during the Period. Close relationships seem to have existed between Phoenicia with
the United Kingdom of Israel and later with the northern Kingdom of Israel. An
investigation of Phoenician seals from the period revealed that Egyptian religious
iconography was used by all levels of Phoenician society. They inter alia used
Egyptian imagery to portray their own gods.
Seals from Israel and Judah during Iron IIB and C indicate that Egyptian religious
iconography was also used on seals by all levels of society in those kingdoms. Israel,
due to its close proximity to Phoenicia, probably imported these images via
Phoenicia. Judah, due to its isolation, probably got those images directly from Egypt.
Some of these images may be ascribed to attempts to portray aspects of Yahweh’s
powers. Others convey definite Egyptian religious messages. Egyptian influences on
Israelite religion played a larger role than previously accepted.
Key terms:
Archaeology; Biblical Archaeology; Syro-Palestine; the northern Kingdom of Israel;
the southern Kingdom of Judah; Phoenicia; Egypt; Iron Ages IIB and C; culture;
cultural exchange; religion; seals; seal amulets; seal iconography.
CONTENTS
Dedication vi
Acknowledgements vii
Abbreviations ix
List of tables x
List of illustrations xi
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION 1
1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 Defining various concepts 11
1.2.1 Introduction 11
1.2.2 Relevant concepts 12
1.2.2.1 Adaptation 12
1.2.2.2 Appropriation 12
1.2.2.3 Culture 12
1.2.2.4 Cultural exchange 13
1.2.2.5 Interaction 14
1.2.2.6 Transculturation 15
1.3 Statement of the problem 15
1.4 Addressing the problem 21
1.5 Pictorial evidence 23
1.6 Seals: History in miniature 26
1.6.1 The seal of Jezebel 32
1.6.2 The seal of Hezekiah 38
1.7 Conclusion 43
i
CHAPTER 2: REVIEW OF RECENT LITERATURE 46
2.1 Introduction 46
2.2 Ziony Zevit 48
2.3 William G. Dever 51
2.4 Othmar Keel & Christoph Uehlinger 52
2.5 Amihai Mazar 55
2.6 Izak Cornelius 56
2.7 Conclusion 58
CHAPTER 3: SYMBOLISM AND RELIGION 60
3.1 Introduction 60
3.2 Application of symbolism 63
3.3 Symbolism and religion 65
3.4 Conclusion 68
CHAPTER 4: EGYPT’S CONTACT WITH SYRO-PALESTINE,
CONTEMPORARY RELIGIOUS CONCEPTS
AND SYMBOLISM 71
4.1 Introduction 71
4.2 Religion and cult in ancient Egypt during relevant periods 73
4.2.1 Cults, temples and rituals 73
4.2.2 Magic and Egyptian religion 77
4.2.3 Egyptian religious symbolism and its meaning 78
4.2.4 Amulets and scarabs 80
4.3 Ancient Egypt’s contact with Syro-Palestine and
relevant prevailing religious concepts 83
4.3.1 Introduction 83
4.3.2 Predynastic Egypt 84
ii
4.3.3 The Old Kingdom (ca. 2686-2181 B.C.E.) 87
4.3.4 The First Intermediary Period (ca.2181-2050 B.C.E.) 90
4.3.5 The Middle Kingdom (ca. 2050-1786 B.C.E.) 90
4.3.6 The Second Intermediate Period (ca. 1786-1567 B.C.E.) 91
4.3.7 The New Kingdom (ca.1567-1058 B.C.E.) 93
4.3.8 Third Intermediate Period (ca.1085-664 B.C.E.) 96
4.3.9 The Late Dynastic Period (ca. 664-332 B.C.E.) 100
4.4 Egyptian religion during relevant periods 106
4.4.1 The Eighteenth to Twentieth Dynasties 106
4.4.2 The Twenty-Sixth Dynasty 110
4.5 Conclusion 112
CHAPTER 5: EGYPTIAN SYMBOLISM ON PHOENICIAN
SEALS DURING IRON IIB AND C 114
5.1 Introduction 114
5.2 Egyptian religious symbols on Phoenician seals 117
5.3 Analysis of Phoenician seals with Egyptian motifs 122
5.3.1 Introduction 122
5.3.2 Analysis of some Phoenician epigraphic seals 123
5.3.2.1 The seal of Ger῾ashtart 123
5.3.2.2 Seal belonging to Ger῾Eshmun, son of Ḥimelek 127
5.3.2.3 Seal belonging to Yaḥziba al 132
5.3.2.4 Seal belonging to Ḥeddai 136
5.3.2.5 139
5.3.3 Phoenician anepigraphic seals 144
5.3.3.1 Phoenician anepigraphic seal (1) 145
5.3.3.2 Phoenician anepigraphic seal (2) 147
5.3.3.3 Phoenician anepigraphic seal (3) 149
5.3.3.4 Phoenician anepigraphic seal (4) 152
5.3.3.5 Phoenician anepigraphic seal (5) 155
iii
5.3.3.6 Phoenician anepigraphic seal (6) 157
5.3.3.7 Phoenician anepigraphic seal (7) 159
5.4 Conclusion 161
CHAPTER 6: AN ANALYSIS OF SEALS FROM ISRAEL AND
JUDAH DATING TO IRON 11B AND C 164
6.1 Introduction 164
6.2 Seals with Hebrew inscriptions and Egyptianised
iconography 174
6.2.1 The seal of Jezebel revisited 175
6.2.2 The seal of Hezekiah revisited 183
6.2.3 Seal Belonging to Elishama ‘son of the king’ 185
6.2.4 Seal belonging to Manasseh son of the king 188
6.2.5 Seal belonging to Ushnâ servant of Ahaz 190
6.2.6 Seal belonging to Abiyau servant of ῾Uzziyau 194
6.2.7 Seal belonging to Asap 199
6.2.8 Seal belonging to ḥmn 202
6.2.8.1 Seal belonging to Azaryaw (son of) hgbh
(Haggobeh or Haggebah) 205
6.2.8.2 Seal of Aḥiṣ ûr 207
6.2.9 Seal belonging to Ushna 209
6.2.10 Seal belonging to Elishamaʿ (son of) Śarmelek 212
6.2.11 Seal belonging Dalā 213
6.2.12 Seal belonging to Ḥabli 216
6.2.13 Seal belonging to Zaka 218
6.2.14 Seal belonging to Elamar 220
6.2.15 Seal belonging to Peqah 224
6.2.16 Seal belonging to mnr 230
6.2.17 The seal of ŠMRYW 234
6.2.18 Seal belonging to ‘Naveyahu (son of) ‘Azayahyu’ 237
iv
6.3 Hebrew anepigraphic seals with Egyptian iconography 239
6.3.1 Hebrew anepigraphic seal 1 239
6.3.2 Hebrew anepigraphic seal 2 243
6.3.3 Hebrew anepigraphic seal 3 247
6.3.4 Hebrew anepigraphic seal 4, lmlk 249
6.4 Conclusion 251
CHAPTER 7: SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMEN-
DATIONS FOR FURTHER STUDY 255
7.1 Summary 255
7.1.1 Introduction 255
7.1.2 Chapter 2 to 4 257
7.1.3 Chapter 5 259
7.1.4 Chapter 6 260
7.2 Conclusions 262
7.3 Recommendations for further study 265
ANNEXURES
A COMPARATIVE CHRONOLOGIES OF
ISRAEL/JUDAH AND EGYPT DURING THE IRON
AGE IN PALESTINE 267
B LIST OF EGYPTIAN AND PHOENICIAN GODS,
RELIGIOUS CONCEPTS AND TERMS 269
C EGYPTIAN CREATION MYTHS 347
BIBLIOGRAPHY 350
v
DEDICATION
I dedicate this study to my wonderful wife Myra, our children Herman, Surene, Petrus
and Wilma and our four grandchildren Wessels, Nicola, Myralene and Wihan who
have patiently borne the brunt of my unavailability, impatience and sometimes
rudeness. The years lost cannot be retrieved and for that I humbly apologise to you
all.
Sed fugit interea, fugit inreparabile Fast flies meanwhile the irreparable hour,
tempus, As point to point our charmed round we
trace.
singula dum capti circumvectamur
Here lies a labour; hence for glory look,
amore.
Brave husbandmen. Nor doubtfully know
Hic labor, hinc laudem fortes sperate
How hard it is for words to triumph here,
coloni.
And shed their lustre on a theme so slight:
Nec sum animi dubius, verbis ea vincere
But I am caught by ravishing desire
magnum
Above the lone Parnassian steep; I love
quam sit, et angustis hunc addere rebus
To walk the heights, from whence no earlier
honorem;
track
sed me Parnasi deserta per ardua dulcis Slopes gently downward to Castalia's spring.
raptat amor; iuvat ire iugis, qua nulla
priorum
Castaliam molli devertitur orbita clivo.
Publius Vergilius Maro
Georgicon, liber III (284-294.)
vi
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This study would not have been possible without the input of many people and I can
merely extend a simple thank you.
My wife and right hand Myra; the sacrifices she made are legion; from continuous
mugs of coffee and attending to menial tasks in and around the house to the sacrifice
of well deserved vacations and finally her proofreading and assistance with
preparation of the final document. Her support and encouragement were invaluable.
Professor WS Boshoff, my supervisor and mentor in field archaeology, who was
always available to give advice even under difficult circumstances such as being
confronted with large portions of this study at any given moment.
Herman Fourie, my son-in-law, for his continuous assistance in solving computer
problems. I also want to thank him and my daughter Surene for the use of some of
their Egyptian photos. You saved me a lot of time.
Petrus and Wilma, who regularly took us on short holidays when frustration ran high
and thus rekindled the flame of inspiration.
Professor CLVW Scheepers who made me aware of the Unisa-scholarships and
arranged for those scholarships to be awarded to me, thus saving me a lot of money.
Coenie it is a privilege to have you and Willem as friends.
All the personnel at Unisa’s Department Old Testament and Ancient Near Eastern
Studies for their encouragement and friendliness. In particular I want to mention Ms
Magdaleen Rootman who is always prepared to help with administrative red tape and
Professor P S Vermaak whose advice on Egyptian literature and hieroglyphs saved a
vii
Description:with symbolism to illustrate the powers of Yahweh. Egyptian iconography on
Hebrew seals, in particular seal amulets, has been regarded by most biblical
