Table Of ContentThe nature of Learning
The nature of Learning
USing RESEaRCh TO inSPiRE PRaCTiCE
Edited by hanna Dumont, David istance and Francisco benavides
USing RESEaRCh TO inSPiRE
What do we know about how people learn? How do young people’s motivations PRaCTiCE
and emotions influence their learning? What does research show to be the benefits
of group work, formative assessments, technology applications, or project-based
learning and when are they most effective? How is learning affected by family Edited by hanna Dumont, David istance
background? These are among the questions addressed for the OECD by leading
and Francisco benavides
researchers from North America and Europe. This book brings together the lessons
of research on both the nature of learning and different educational applications,
and it summarises these as seven key concluding principles.
Among the contributors are Brigid Barron, Monique Boekaerts, Erik de Corte,
Linda Darling-Hammond, Kurt Fischer, Andrew Furco, Richard Mayer,
Lauren Resnick, Barbara Schneider, Robert Slavin, James Spillane, Elsbeth Stern
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The Nature of Learning: Using Research to Inspire Practice is essential reading for a
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learning in classrooms, schools and other settings. It aims, first and foremost, to o
inform practice and educational reform. It will be of particular interest to teachers, f L
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education leaders, teacher educators, advisors and decision makers, as well as the a
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The full text of this book is available on line via this link: E
www.sourceoecd.org/education/9789264086470 PR
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Centre for Educational Research and Innovation
iSbn 978-92-64-08647-0 -:HSTCQE=U][Y\U:
96 2010 10 1 P
www.oecd.org/publishing
The Nature of Learning
USING RESEARCH TO INSPIRE PRACTICE
Edited by Hanna Dumont, David Istance and
Francisco Benavides
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foreworD – 3
Foreword
There is intense interest today in the nature of learning and creating the
environments for it to flourish. global drivers are pushing all countries to
give priority to generating high levels of knowledge and skills with attention
increasingly to more demanding forms of “21st century competences”. The
corollary concern is that traditional educational approaches are not adequately
delivering on such demanding agendas. There have been major strides in
measuring learning outcomes – of which our own pisa surveys are a prime
example – which turns the spotlight onto how those outcomes can actually be
changed. Meanwhile, despite high levels of educational investment (including
in educational technology) and extensive educational reforms in our different
countries, we know how difficult it is to make an impact on the “black box”
of teaching and learning.
at oecD, we have developed an impressive battery of studies and
surveys to address these different priorities. The pisa surveys are now
prominently established on the world scene since the first survey took place a
decade ago, with the initial results from the latest 2009 wave of student meas-
urement covering 65 countries becoming available at the end of this year. The
recent Teaching and Learning international survey (TaLis) gathered data
from over 70 000 teachers and school principals in lower secondary education
in 23 countries to provide a detailed international picture on the conditions of
teaching and learning, with main results published in 2009 and further work
planned. our centre for effective Learning environments (ceLe) looks at
these questions from the perspective of the facilities and buildings for learn-
ing to ask what designs and facilities management are appropriate for the 21st
century.
The oecD centre for educational research and innovation (ceri)
is making its own very important contribution through wide-ranging
analysis of learning and innovation, including by the “innovative Learning
environments” project (iLe) which has produced this volume. ceri com-
bines the forward-looking study of innovation with research-informed analy-
sis to bring the different options for policy and practice into sharper relief.
in recent years, ceri has worked intensively on a number of related key
The NaTure of LearNiNg: usiNg research To iNspire pracTice © oecD 2010
4 – foreworD
themes: how countries can make innovation more system-wide and sustain-
able, the nature of 21st century skills, how technologies can be used to reshape
learning environments and the characteristics of “new millennium learners”,
exemplary formative assessment practices in schools and for low-skill adults,
neuro-science and learning. ceri organised a major conference in paris in
May 2008 on all these themes to celebrate its 40th anniversary – “Learning in
the 21st century: research, innovation and policy”.
This book is a milestone in iLe work to follow the first project publica-
tion (Innovating to Learn, Learning to Innovate) in 2008. as the title The
Nature of Learning: Using Research to Inspire Practice suggests, it aims to
inform educational policy and practice via evidence-based reflection on how
learning environments should be designed. Leading educational researchers
and learning specialists were invited to review relevant research findings on
a particular slice of the overall picture and to present their key implications
in an understandable, accessible way. we are delighted that such eminent
contributors from North america and europe have agreed to take part. it is
a most impressive line-up of authors providing very high quality chapters.
These chapters range over both the current understanding of the nature
of learning and different educational applications. They cover the develop-
ment of how learning has come to be understood, and key insights from the
cognitive, emotional and biological perspectives. They look at approaches
using, and evidence about, group work, technology, formative feedback and
project-based learning, as well as what takes place beyond school settings in
families and communities. They consider not only directions to follow but
also how change might best be implemented. The volume concludes with a
synthesis of the main findings, drawing all into seven key concluding princi-
ples and discussing their implications. we see it as invaluable reading for all
those interested in knowing what research has to say about how to optimise
learning for young people which we hope will inspire changes in practice.
This volume has been designed and edited by hanna Dumont, of the
university of Tübingen germany, David istance of the ceri secretariat, and
francisco Benavides, formerly of ceri. it greatly benefited from seminar
discussions in 2009 in weimar in germany (May), oslo in Norway (august/
september) and at the ceri governing Board meeting in paris (November).
Barbara ischinger
Director, Directorate for education
oecD
The NaTure of LearNiNg: usiNg research To iNspire pracTice © oecD 2010
ackNowLeDgeMeNTs – 5
Acknowledgements
we owe a large debt of thanks to the chapter authors, who accepted our ini-
tial invitation to join this venture and then responded to our many requests with
so much patience: Brigid Barron, Monique Boekaerts, erik De corte, Linda
Darling-hammond, kurt fischer, andrew furco, pam goldman, cristina
hinton, Venessa keesler, richard e. Mayer, Larissa Morlock, elizabeth s.
rangel, Lauren B. resnick, Barbara schneider, Michael schneider, robert e.
slavin, James p. spillane, elsbeth stern and Dylan wiliam.
we extend a special word of gratitude to Monique Boekaerts, erik De
corte and Michael schneider who have played crucial additional roles in the
design and the dissemination of this study. for the oecD, we wish to record
our indebtedness to hanna Dumont, of the university of Tuebingen germany,
who worked ceaselessly on all aspects of the volume from conception to com-
pletion as editor and author.
This book would not have been possible without the Directorate for
education and Training (utdanningsdirektoratet) in Norway, which pro-
vided essential financial support. The Norwegian Directorate for education
and Training also generously hosted a key event in oslo, 31 august and
1 september 2009, bringing together the authors and the participating iLe
system representatives to discuss the contents in detail and to help shape the
conclusions of this volume. we would particularly like to extend our thanks
to per Tronsmo, katrine stegenborg Teigen and to the former and current
Norwegian ceri Board members petter skarheim and hege Nilssen and to
the rest of the conference team.
we thank the Thuringian Ministry of culture and education in germany
for hosting a seminar in weimar on 14-15 May 2009 which brought key
authors and experts together at a critical point in the study. we would par-
ticularly like to thank rupert Deppe (also ceri Board member), christine
Minkus-Zipfel and christina kindervater for their most valuable support of
this work.
The NaTure of LearNiNg: usiNg research To iNspire pracTice © oecD 2010
6 – ackNowLeDgeMeNTs
we acknowledge the input made by all the participants at these events, as
well as that of the ceri governing Board made collectively and individually
since the beginning of this study.
within the oecD very special thanks are due to Taeyeon Lee for her
dedicated hard work on this volume in the first half of 2010 during her
traineeship with ceri from kyung hee university, korea. francesc pedró
contributed his expertise on technology issues in chapter 1. we are grateful
that francisco Benavides was able to remain connected with the work after
his transfer within the education Directorate. oecD’s public affairs and
communications Directorate (pac) gave valuable detailed editorial advice.
James Bouch looked after the logistics throughout much of the preparation
of this report and Lynda hawe, peter Vogelpoel and florence wojtasinski
contributed to the finalisation process prior to publication. ceri colleagues
in general contributed in innumerable ways (including to the selection of an
appropriate title).
The NaTure of LearNiNg: usiNg research To iNspire pracTice © oecD 2010
TaBLe of coNTeNTs – 7
Table of contents
Executive summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
why such interest in learning?. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
The coverage of The Nature of Learning. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .14
Transversal conclusions on learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .14
a demanding educational agenda . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .18
Chapter 1. Analysing and designing learning environments for
the 21st century. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
— Hanna Dumont and David Istance
introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
Learning moves centre stage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
why learning environments?. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
The aims of this book. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
references . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
Chapter 2. Historical developments in the understanding of learning. . . . . . . 35
— Erik de Corte
introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
Major concepts of learning throughout the 20th century . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
Theories of learning and educational practice: an awkward relationship . . . . . . .41
current understandings of learning. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
concluding remarks and implications for policy. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
annex. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
references . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
Chapter 3. The cognitive perspective on learning: ten cornerstone findings. . 69
— Michael Schneider and Elsbeth Stern
The cognitive perspective on learning – an introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
Ten cornerstone findings from cognitive research on learning. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
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8 – TaBLe of coNTeNTs
conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
references . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
Chapter 4. The crucial role of motivation and emotion in classroom learning. . . 91
— Monique Boekaerts
introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
The effect of motivational beliefs and emotions on learning. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
key motivation principles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
implications for policy. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
references . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
Chapter 5. Learning from the developmental and biological perspective . . . .113
— Christina Hinton and Kurt W. Fischer
introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .114
research in mind, brain and education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .114
Nature meets nurture. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .116
how people use their brains to learn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .116
emotion and cognition are inextricably linked in the brain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .119
Language and literacy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .121
Mathematics. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
people use their brains differently, following different learning pathways. . . . 124
people use their brains to learn through social interaction in a cultural context 126
implications for the design of learning environments. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
references . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
Chapter 6. The role of formative assessment in effective learning
environments. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .135
— Dylan Wiliam
introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
why assessment is central to learning. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
formative assessment as feedback. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .137
formative assessment as part of teaching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .142
Theoretical syntheses: formative assessment and assessment for learning. . . . .147
formative assessment: key instructional processes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
formative assessment and the regulation of learning processes . . . . . . . . . . . . .152
summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .153
references . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .155
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