Education Policy and Power-Sharing in Post-Conflict Societies: Lebanon, Northern Ireland, and Macedonia

324 Pages·2017·4.271 MB·English

by  Giuditta Fontana (auth.)

EDUCATION POLICY
AND POWER-SHARING
IN POST-CONFLICT
SOCIETIES
Lebanon, Northern Ireland,
and Macedonia
GIUDITTA FONTANA
Education Policy and Power-Sharing in
Post-C onfl ict Societies

Giuditta   Fontana
Education Policy and
Power-Sharing in
Post-Confl ict
Societies
Lebanon, Northern Ireland, and Macedonia
Giuditta   Fontana
University of Birmingham
Birmingham, UK
ISBN 978-3-319-31425-9 ISBN 978-3-319-31426-6 (eBook)
DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-31426-6
Library of Congress Control Number: 2016940618
© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s) 2 017
This work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively licensed by the
Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifi cally the rights of
translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on
microfi lms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval,
electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now
known or hereafter developed.
The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this
publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specifi c statement, that such names are
exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use.
The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information
in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the pub-
lisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, express or implied, with respect to the
material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made.
Cover illustration: © Jason Lindsey / Alamy Stock Photo
Printed on acid-free paper
This Palgrave Macmillan imprint is published by Springer Nature
The registered company is Springer International Publishing AG Switzerland
A
CKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I am glad to be fi nally able to thank some of those who helped and sup-
ported me during the research for this book. First, I express my gratitude
to my two academic mentors, Professor Michael Kerr and Professor Rory
Miller, who pushed me towards increasingly ambitious projects and gave
me infi nite opportunities to learn from them. The valuable comments and
advice of my PhD examiners, Professor Brendan O’Leary and Dr Germ
Janmaat, also made it possible for me to turn my doctoral thesis into this
book.
The fi nancial contribution of King’s College London School of Arts
and Humanities, the Council for British Research in the Levant and the
Sir Richard Stapley Educational Trust allowed me to spend extensive peri-
ods in Lebanon, Northern Ireland and Macedonia. There, I am deeply
grateful to all my interviewees, who answered my questions, replied to all
my follow-up emails and phone calls, gave me access to their writings and
contacts, and often became precious intercultural interpreters.
Countless friends and colleagues have helped me and supported me
during the research for this book. Some hosted me during my nomadic
years, others read parts of my work, helped me with translations and sug-
gested further sources. They all patiently listened to my intricate and
evolving arguments and conclusions. I hope they enjoy the fi nal product.
Finally, this work would not exist without my parents, Lanfranco and
Marianna, who taught me that it is worth fi ghting for the things you love.
Last but not least, I thank my husband Alessandro, the best c ompagno di
viaggio I could hope for, and Leonardo, who is adding spice to my life
and work.
v

C
ONTENTS
1 Introduction 1
1.1 Hypotheses 3
1.2 Lebanon, Northern Ireland and Macedonia 4
1.2.1 D emography 4
1.2.2 T he Three Confl icts 9
1.2.3 P eace Agreements: Consociations and Education
Reforms 10
1.3 Methods 12
1.4 Chapter Structure 13
1.5 Contribution to Knowledge 1 7
2 Power-Sharing and Education Policy in Deeply
Divided Societies 2 3
2.1 Individual and Ethnic Identities 24
2.1.1 S ocial Identity Theory 2 5
2.2 Deeply Divided Societies and Violent Confl ict 2 7
2.2.1 I dentity-Based Confl ict in Deeply Divided Societies 2 8
2.2.2 G roup Identities and Violent Confl ict 2 9
2.3 Confl ict Resolution and Consociation 3 0
2.3.1 E stablishment and Resilience of Consociations 3 3
2.3.2 C omplex Consociations 35
2.3.3 T he Consociational Paradox and Its Critiques 3 6
vii
viii CONTENTS
2.4 Why Education? 3 9
2.4.1 S chooling as Socialisation into a Myth-Symbol Complex 4 1
2.4.2 E ducation as Socialisation into a Political Order 4 2
2.4.3 S chools and Identity-Based Confl ict 4 3
2.4.4 F rom War to Peace 4 4
2.5 Conclusion 4 8
3 Compulsory Education in Lebanon, Northern Ireland
and Macedonia 61
3.1 Lebanon 62
3.1.1 F rench Mandate (1920–1943) 6 2
3.1.2 N ational Pact (1943–1958) 6 5
3.1.3 C ompromises (1958–1974) 6 9
3.1.4 C ivil War (1975–1989) 7 2
3.1.5 T he Taif Agreement and Beyond (1990–Present) 7 4
3.2 Northern Ireland 7 7
3 .2.1 N orthern Ireland (1920–1947) 7 8
3.2.2 L imited Reform (1947–1968) 8 1
3.2.3 T roubles (1968–1998) 8 2
3.2.4 T he Belfast Agreement and Beyond (1998–Present) 86
3.3 Macedonia 8 9
3.3.1 A s Part of Yugoslavia (1918–1989) 9 0
3.3.2 I ndependent Macedonia (1991–2000) 9 8
3.3.3 T he Ohrid Agreement and Beyond (2001–Present) 1 02
3.4 Conclusion 105
4 Reforming History Education 1 23
4.1 History Education in Deeply Divided Societies:
Theoretical Debates 124
4.2 Lebanon 127
4.2.1 M ission Impossible 1 28
4.2.2 A State Secret 129
4 .2.3 P olitical Disagreement Versus Historical Events 1 32
4.2.4 F ragmented Pasts 1 34
4.3 Northern Ireland 136
4.3.1 T he 2005 Curriculum and Its Weaknesses 137
4.3.2 A n Escapable Connection? 1 39
CONTENTS ix
4.4 Macedonia 1 40
4.4.1 A Proportional Curriculum 141
4.4.2 W e Are Not Touching History 1 44
4.5 Conclusion 146
5 Formulating Citizenship Education 159
5.1 Citizenship Education in Deeply Divided Societies:
Theoretical Debates 160
5.2 Lebanon 162
5.2.1 C itizenship and Civic Education 1 63
5.2.2 T he Weaknesses of a Nationalist Civic Education 1 64
5.2.3 M oral Preaching 1 67
5.3 Northern Ireland 168
5.3.1 E lusive Bird: EMU 1 69
5.3.2 F ormulating and Implementing Personal
Development and Mutual Understanding and 
Local and Global Citizenship 170
5.3.3 S till ‘Patchy’: The Limits of Personal Development
and Mutual Understanding and Local and 
Global Citizenship 1 73
5.3.4 T ransformative, Not Prescriptive 1 75
5.4 Macedonia 1 75
5.4.1 L ost in the Curriculum: Civic Education 176
5.4.2 T he Strategy for Integrated Education 178
5.4.3 T owards a Civic Culture 1 79
5.5 Conclusion 180
6 Languages of Instruction 1 93
6.1 Teaching Languages in Deeply Divided Societies:
Theoretical Debates 194
6.2 Lebanon 197
6.2.1 E nrichment Bilingual Education 1 99
6.2.2 O ld and New Cleavages in Language Policy 201
6.2.3 ‘ Practicality Won over Principle’ 202
6.3 Northern Ireland 202
6.3.1 I rish-Language Education: Not in the Cold Anymore 2 03
6 .3.2 U lster-Scots: Cashing in the Cheque 206
6.3.3 P arity of Languages 2 07