Table Of ContentEcological Modernisation and Renewable Energy
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Energy, Climate and the Environment Series
Series Editor: David Elliott, Emeritus Professor of Technology,
Open University, UK
Titles include:
David Elliott (editor)
NUCLEAR OR NOT?
Does Nuclear Power Have a Place in a Sustainable Future?
David Elliott (editor)
SUSTAINABLE ENERGY
Opportunities and Limitations
Horace Herring and Steve Sorrell (editors)
ENERGY EFFICIENCY AND SUSTAINABLE CONSUMPTION
The Rebound Effect
Matti Kojo and Tapio Litmanen (editors)
THE RENEWAL OF NUCLEAR POWER IN FINLAND
Antonio Marquina (editor)
GLOBAL WARMING AND CLIMATE CHANGE
Prospects and Policies in Asia and Europe
Catherine Mitchell
THE POLITICAL ECONOMY OF SUSTAINABLE ENERGY
Ivan Scrase and Gordon MacKerron (editors)
ENERGY FOR THE FUTURE
A New Agenda
Gill Seyfang
SUSTAINABLE CONSUMPTION, COMMUNITY ACTION AND THE NEW ECONOMICS
Seeds of Change
Joseph Szarka
WIND POWER IN EUROPE
Politics, Business and Society
David Toke
ECOLOGICAL MODERNISATION AND RENEWABLE ENERGY
Xu Yi-chong
THE POLITICS OF NUCLEAR ENERGY IN CHINA
Energy, Climate and the Environment
Series Standing Order ISBN 978–0–230–00800–7 (hb) 978–0–230–22150–5 (pb)
You can receive future titles in this series as they are published by placing a standing order.
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Ecological Modernisation
and Renewable Energy
David Toke
Senior Lecturer in Energy Policy,
Department of Political Science and International Studies,
University of Birmingham, UK
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© David Toke 2011
Softcover reprint of the hardcover 1st edition 2011 978-0-230-22426-1
All rights reserved. No reproduction, copy or transmission of this
publication may be made without written permission.
No portion of this publication may be reproduced, copied or transmitted
save with written permission or in accordance with the provisions of the
Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988, or under the terms of any licence
permitting limited copying issued by the Copyright Licensing Agency,
Saffron House, 6-10 Kirby Street, London EC1N 8TS.
Any person who does any unauthorized act in relation to this publication
may be liable to criminal prosecution and civil claims for damages.
The author has asserted his right to be identified as the author of this work in
accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.
First published 2011 by
PALGRAVE MACMILLAN
Palgrave Macmillan in the UK is an imprint of Macmillan Publishers Limited,
registered in England, company number 785998, of Houndmills, Basingstoke,
Hampshire RG21 6XS.
Palgrave Macmillan in the US is a division of St Martin’s Press LLC,
175 Fifth Avenue, New York, NY 10010.
Palgrave Macmillan is the global academic imprint of the above companies
and has companies and representatives throughout the world.
Palgrave® and Macmillan® are registered trademarks in the United States,
the United Kingdom, Europe and other countries.
ISBN 978-1-349-30924-5 ISBN 978-0-230-30216-7 (eBook)
DOI 10.1057/9780230302167
This book is printed on paper suitable for recycling and made from fully
managed and sustained forest sources. Logging, pulping and manufacturing
processes are expected to conform to the environmental regulations of the
country of origin.
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library.
A catalog record for this book is available from the Library of Congress.
10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
20 19 18 17 16 15 14 13 12 11
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Contents
List of Abbreviations vi
Acknowledgements vii
Series Editor’s Preface viii
1 Introduction 1
2 Revising Ecological Modernisation Theory 7
3 Renewable Energy: A New Identity and a New Industry 41
4 California: The Growth of a Renewables Industry 76
5 USA: Consolidation of a Renewables Industry? 98
6 Germany, Spain, the UK, Australia and China 129
7 Conclusion 167
Interviews 180
Notes 182
Bibliography 183
Index 197
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Abbreviations
ACF Australian Conservation Foundation
APPA Asociación de Productores de Energías Renovables
AWEA American Wind Energy Association
BWE Bundesverband WindEnergie eV
CAFÉ Corporate Average Fuel Economy
CCS Carbon Capture and Storage
CEC California Energy Commission also Clean Energy Council
CREIA Chinese Renewable Energy Industry Association
EDF Environmental Defense Fund also Electricité de France
FERC Federal Energy Regulatory Commission
FPL Florida Power and Light
GW gigawatt
GWe gigawatt of electricity
IDAE Instituto para la Diversificación y Ahorro de la Energía
kWh Kilowatt hour
MRET Mandatory Renewable Energy Target
MTOE Million Tonnes of Oil Equivalent
MW megawatt
NDRC National Development and Reform Commission
NFFO Non-Fossil Fuel Obligation
OAT Office of Appropriate Technology
PPA Power Purchase Agreement
PTC Production Tax Credit
PUC Public Utilities Commission
PURPA Public Utility Regulatory Policies Act
Pv photovoltaics
RO Renewables Obligation
ROC Renewables Obligation Certificate
RPS Renewable Portfolio Standard
TREIA Texas Renewable Energy Industry Association
TWh terawatt hour
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Acknowledgements
I first wish to acknowledge the support of Dave Elliott, who prompted
me into drafting a proposal for this book. I would like to thank various
people who commented on sections of the book: Neil Carter, Giorel
Curran and Richard Cowell, who gave me feedback on Chapter 2; Jan
Hamrin and Paul Gipe, who made comments on Chapters 4 and 5 (espe-
cially Jan Hamrin, who spent a lot of time on the empirical details). I
thank Andrew Blowers and David Humphreys for cultivating my inter-
est in ecological modernisation, Ross Abbinnett for encouraging me to
discuss identity issues, and the anonymous reviewers (of the book pro-
posal and the book itself) at Palgrave. I value discussions with Simon
Shackley, Dan van der Horst, Xavier Lemaire, Greg Buckman, Miguel
Mendonza, Richard Green, Ian Fairlie and also various members of the
Claverton Group of Energy Experts – although I stress that this does not
necessarily mean that the people I have mentioned agree with what I
have said.
Of importance to this work was a series of staff seminar presentations
I was given the opportunity to deliver at a range of universities. These
include the Science Policy Research Unit at the University of Sussex;
the Department of Technology and Social Studies at the University of
Maastricht; the Department of Technology Management of Eindhoven
University of Technology; the Department of Politics and International
Relations at the University of Aberdeen; the School of Geosciences at the
University of Edinburgh; the Department of Politics, University of York;
the School of Social Policy, Sociology and Social Research, University
of Kent; the School of Politics, International Relations and Philosophy,
Keele University; the School of Social and Political Sciences, University
of Melbourne; and the School of Political Science and International
Studies, University of Queensland. I thank the people who agreed to be
interviewed. I thank my partner Yvonne Carter for her moral support
during this period.
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Series Editor’s Preface
Concerns about the potential environmental, social and economic
impacts of climate change have led to a major international debate over
what could and should be done to reduce emissions of greenhouse gases,
which are claimed to be the main cause. There is still a scientific debate
over the likely scale of climate change, and the complex interactions
between human activities and climate systems, but, in the words of no
less than the Governor of California, Arnold Schwarzenegger, “I say the
debate is over. We know the science, we see the threat, and the time for action
is now.”
Whatever we do now, there will have to be a lot of social and eco-
nomic adaptation to climate change-preparing for increased flooding
and other climate related problems. However, the more fundamental
response is to try to reduce or avoid the human activities that are seen
as causing climate change. That means, primarily, trying to reduce or
eliminate emission of greenhouse gases from the combustion of fossil
fuels in vehicles and power stations. Given that around 80 per cent of
the energy used in the world at present comes from these sources, this
will be a major technological, economic and political undertaking. It
will involve reducing demand for energy (via lifestyle choice changes),
producing and using whatever energy we still need more efficiently
(getting more from less), and supplying the reduced amount of energy
from non-fossil sources (basically switching over to renewables and/or
nuclear power).
Each of these options opens up a range of social, economic and environ-
mental issues. Industrial society and modern consumer cultures have been
based on the ever-expanding use of fossil fuels, so the changes required
will inevitably be challenging. Perhaps equally inevitable are disagree-
ments and conflicts over the merits and demerits of the various options
and in relation to strategies and policies for pursuing them. These conflicts
and associated debates sometimes concern technical issues, but there are
usually also underlying political and ideological commitments and agen-
das which shape, or at least colour, the ostensibly technical debates. In par-
ticular, at times, technical assertions can be used to buttress specific policy
frameworks in ways which subsequently prove to be flawed
The aim of this series is to provide texts which lay out the techni-
cal, environmental and political issues relating to the various proposed
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Series Editor’s Preface ix
policies for responding to climate change. The focus is not primarily on
the science of climate change, or on the technological detail, although
there will be accounts of the state of the art, to aid assessment of the
viability of the various options. However, the main focus is the pol-
icy conflicts over which strategy to pursue. The series adopts a critical
approach and attempts to identify flaws in emerging policies, propo-
sitions and assertions. In particular, it seeks to illuminate counter-in-
tuitive assessments, conclusions and new perspectives. The aim is not
simply to map the debates, but to explore their structure, their underly-
ing assumptions and their limitations. Texts are incisive and authorita-
tive sources of critical analysis and commentary, indicating clearly the
divergent views that have emerged and also identifying the shortcom-
ings of these views.
The present volume is very much in the latter category. It attempts
to both challenge and develop the theory of ecological modernisation
that has emerged in recent years. Ecological modernisation has often
so far been seen as a prescription for making relatively minor adjust-
ments to how energy policy was developed and energy projects carried
out, often in a ‘top-down’ way. Toke, however, suggests that, not only
has the modernisation that has occurred, for example, in relation to
the adoption of wind power, involved in its earlier development the
essential element of social movements, but that the comprehensive
industrialisation of renewable technologies involves the development
of a separate ‘eco identity’ as well. Toke says that this identity, with
which the public and environmental NGOs sympathise, means that,
in reality, ecological modernisation (EM) proceeds differently to that
of conventional ecological modernisation theory. In conventional EM,
mainstream industry (such as the electricity industry) makes the key
technological choices. In Toke’s notion of ‘identity EM’, technological
choices are prompted by ‘bottom-up’ pressures for specific technolo-
gies with a sustainable energy identity. This distinct technological iden-
tity persists even now that renewables are becoming major actors in
the world energy industries. Moreover the renewable industries act as
competitors with conventional fossil fuel and nuclear energy sources
seeking to replace them in part or whole. Toke sees this ‘identity EM’
process as central to the future continued success of renewable energy
technologies.
Dave Elliott
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