Table Of ContentR Maller M. Leupelt Eco Targets, Goal Functions, and Orientors
Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg GmbH
Felix Miiller Maren Leupelt (Eds.)
Eco Targets,
Goal Functions,
and Orientors
With 77 Figures and 55 TabIes
Springer
.Dr. FELIX MULLER
Dipl. Ing. MAREN LEUPELT
Universităt Kiel
Okologie-Zentrum
Schauenburger StraBe 112
D-24118 Kiel
Germany
ISBN 978-3-642-63720-9
Die Deutsche Bibliothek -CIP Einheitsaufnahme
Ecc targets, goal functions and orientors : with 55 tables I Felix
MiilIer, Maren Leupelt (ed.). -Berlin; Heidelberg; New York;
Barcelona ; Budapest ; Hong Kong ; London ; Milan ; Paris; Santa
Clara; Singapore; Tokyo: Springer, 1998
ISBN 978-3-642-63720-9 ISBN 978-3-642-58769-6 (eBook)
DOI 10.1007/978-3-642-58769-6
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Foreword
This volume comprises the proceedings of the International Workshop on Eco
logical Goal Functions, held at the Schleswig-Holstein Cultural Center of Salzau,
August 30 - September 4, 1996. The conference - first in a series - intended to
be convened at Salzau at 1 - 2 year intervals to address various aspects of theo
retical and application-oriented ecology, was initiated, organized and carried out
under the auspices of the Ecology Center of the Kiel University. It featured key
note addresses, invited lectures, submitted papers, and posters. 32 contributions
written by authors from eight countries, were selected to be presented in this
book.
From the very rich discussions of the workshop, some general characteristics
emerged which might become important for a deeper understanding of the nature
of evolving systems or, in other words, systems with a history, described by
variables with a high degree of interdependence. These characteristics include
the following: Speaking of 'goal functions' is a convenient 'fa~on de parler', since
a logical analysis of the formal structure of teleological and causal explanations
shows that both are analogous with regard to the inherent structural typology and
the basic mode of explanation. Teleological interpretations introduce motives or
objectives of actors into the set of 'antecedens' conditions relevant for system
evolution, and are consequently a subset of causal interpretations. Hence it en
sues that, for the sake of terminological clarity, the use of the term "goal" should
be limited to the modeling context, while in descriptions of the real-world situa
tion terms like "teleonomy" or "finality" appear more appropriate.
Considering the latter terms, a further distinction is indicated. Static teleon
omy or fitness means that a certain arrangement, for instance poisonous sub
stances or thorns protecting plants against grazing cattle, or imitative colorations
and mimicries, are useful for certain 'purposes'. By way of contrast dynamic
teleonomy indicates a directiveness of processes, and here again different phe
nomena can be distinguished which are often confused. Each system which at
tains a time-independent condition can be described as if its present behavior
were dependent on that final state. Contrary to this 'direction of events' is the
directiveness based upon structure, meaning that a specific arrangement of
structures leads the process in such a way that a certain result is achieved. This
clearly applies to the function of man-made machines yielding products desired
VI Foreword
or performances foreseen but is also true in living systems which are character
ized by a structural order of processes widely surpassing all machines in compli
cation and evolved in order to maintain the system itself. An important part of
these processes is represented by homeostasis, i.e. those processes through which
the material and energetical situation of the organism is maintained constant.
These regulations are governed, in a wide extent, by feedback mechanisms, as
emphasized by cybernetics.
There is yet another basis for organic regulations, namely equifinality, i.e. the
fact that the same final state can be reached from different initial conditions and
in different ways. This is the case in open systems, insofar as they attain a steady
state. Thus equifinality is responsible for the primary regulability of living sys
tems and supersystems which cannot be based upon predetermined structures or
mechanisms, but on the contrary, exclude such mechanisms. They were in for
mer times regarded as arguments for vitalism. Nowadays it is already classical
wisdom of thermodynamically oriented system-ecology that a state of sufficient
nonequilibrium is maintained within living systems and their relations with the
environment. Thus state variables like entropy or negentropy and the energy
parameter exergy are very useful descriptors and integral measures of ecosystem
organization.
Finally, there is true finality, meaning that the actual behavior is determined
by the foresight of the goal. As such, true purposiveness is, in particular, charac
teristic of human behavior, and it is fundamentally connected with the evolution
of the symbolism of language and concepts.
Equating the phase space of ecological systems with a geographic landscape,
there exist multiple stable points and regions, or dynamic regimes, for a system;
in switching between them, the system has the capability of undergoing qualita
tive change. Evolution implies an ordered succession of such transitions; at many
levels autocatalysis seems to be an important "driving mechanism". Resilience is
a measure of the ability of a system to absorb changes of state variables, driving
variables, and parameters. It is high near the boundaries of a stable regime (i.e.
near the maximum sustainable nonequilibrium), where fluctuations abound and
stability (qua return to an eqUilibrium state) is low; inversely, high stability gen
erally implies low resilience - a system geared to short-term efficiency and pro
ductivity. However, evolution seems to further flexibility of systems at all levels;
this implies that long-term viability through the development of a capability to
deal with the unexpected is favored over short-term efficiency and productivity.
Popper's propensity concept with its conditional probabilities is a very promising
tool to further and more precisely elucidate the underlying mechanisms.
A convenient, if not comprehensive, taxonomy of views regarding sustain
ability evolved in the course of discussions. First, the "input-output" view as
sumes that the internal dynamics of the ecosystem are more or less in a steady
state. Second, the related "state" definition requires simply that a sustainable
system be one in which a state can be maintained indefinitely. The "capital" or
"stock" view requires the maintenance of natural capital at or above current
Foreword VII
levels and, thus, that the products of the ecosystem be used at a rate within that
system's capacity for renewal. Sustainability is thereby ensured by living off the
income rather than the ecological capital. This involves the perpetuation of the
character and natural processes of the ecosystem and indefinite maintenance of
its integrity without degrading the integrity of other ecosystems. Finally, there is
the "potential throughput" view, emphasizing the use of resources within the
capacity of those resources to renew themselves. According to this view, sustain
ability is defined on the basis of maintenance of potential, so that ecosystems can
provide the same quantity and quality of goods and services as in the past. Po
tential is emphasized rather than stocks, biomass, or energy levels.
In looking for an organizing principle for measuring sustainability, three lev
els of activity can be identified. The first level involves determining measure
ments of sustainability. By defining the basis for measuring sustainability at the
ecosystem or landscape level, the relevant measurements can be aggregated into
indicators at the second level. Therefore, it is important to assemble a generic
list of indicators of sustainablity to serve as a checklist for determining the cor
rect ground for each of the ecosystems. Specific measurements must then be
identified for each indicator. However, it is important to define the status of this
generic list of indicators at the regional and global levels, and this requires a
composite index, which is the third level.
Finally, sustainable development is not an ecological problem nor a social
problem nor an economic problem, but an integrated feature at all three. This
means that effective investments in sustainable development simultaneously
retain and encourage the adaptive capabilities of people, of business, and of
nature (Holling v. Schumpeter). The effectiveness of those capabilities can tum
the same unexpected event into an opportunity for one system or a crisis for
another. Adaptive capacities are dependent on processes that permit renewal in
society, economies, and ecosystems. For nature, it is the structure of the bio
sphere; for business and people, it is usable and useful knowledge; and for soci
ety as a whole, it is trust.
This is what this book is all about. It is divided into four main sections, ad
dressing various problems of, and suggested solutions to, tht: complex problems
of an integrated, systemary environmental management. Chapter 2 is devoted to
ecosystem development; Chapter 3 deals with the philosophical basis of the goal
function and orientors concepts; Chapter 4 presents problems of combining natu
ral and human orientors; and, finally, Chapter 5 covers eco targets as goal func
tions in environmental management. May this broad coverage help focus the
interest of environmentalists, planners and policy makers alike on the all
important environmental issues facing modem life.
Kiel, November 1997 Prof. Dr. Otto Franzle
Preface
Goal Functions, Orientors and Eco Targets may be considered as elements of an
interdisciplinary effort that attempts to utilize and couple principles of ecosystem
research and ecological systems theory with human systems and environmental
management. The Salzau workshop on ecological goal functions, in autumn
1996, was devoted to the fields of ecosystem research, general and applied ecol
ogy, economy, philosophy and sociology. It was a stimulating opportunity to
discuss ecosystem theoretical concepts with an interdisciplinary group of scien
tists. Four work groups have elaborated important components of the workshop
schedule. Their results have been integrated into the introductions and conclu
sions of the single chapters.
It was generally agreed that a joint meeting of different disciplines is of great
importance for the development of a unifying concept that combines the holistic
ecological theory with environmental practice. Furthermore, the discussion
showed clearly that it is an urgent necessity to start an intensive mediation proc
ess between these potential partners.
The general opinion substantiates that we are ready to use the data and results
of ecosystem research in a suitable and sound way. However, the corresponding
basic ideas can only develop and cope with reality if there is a constant and in
tense dialogue between different theories and between theory and planning
practice. Publishing the workshop results, we hope that the reader will profit
from an initial inter- and intra-scientific exchange.
We wish to thank the Federal Ministry for Education, Research, Science and
Technology for the kind and efficient support of the workshop and this volume.
We also thank all the persons who were involved in the Salzau-meeting, those
contributing with a paper, those taking part at the vivid discussions, and those
supporting the organization of the meeting and this book: Guiseppe Bendoric
chio, Mario Catizzone, Villy Christensen, Uta Eser, Irene Gabriel, Ursula
Gaedke, Folke Gunther, Benno Hain, Stefanie Hari, Eugene Krasnov, Bai-Lian
Li, Sabine Ludwigshausen, Alessandro Marani, Kati Mattern, Georg Schulze-
X Preface
Ballhorn, Tim Uhlenkamp, Wiebke Wewer, Wilhelm Windhorst and Hartmut
ZwOlfer.
Finally, we like to thank all the persons who did take part in the review
process of this book: Robert Alexy, Peter Allen, Jan Barkmann, Guiseppe Ben
doricchio, Dieter Birnbacher, Reinhard Bornkamm, Hartmut Bossel, Broder
Breckling, Wolfgang Cramer, Klaus Dierssen, Sabine Dittmann, Wolfgang
Dombrowski, Uta Eser, Brian Fath, Otto Franzle, Marc Gessner, Giulio Genoni,
Ulrich Haber, Susan Haffmanns, Ulrich Hampicke, Robert A. Herendeen, Rainer
Hingst, Georg Hormann, Rainer Horn, Sven E. Jj/Jrgensen, Ludger Kappen, Hans
Kastenholz, Roman Lenz, Drnitrii O. Logofet, Sievert Lorenzen, Sylvia Opitz,
Claudia Pahl-Wostl, Bernhard C. Patten, Harald Plachter, Wolfgang Rath,
Heiner Reck, Michael Ruhs, Claus Schimming, Joachim Schrautzer, Wolf Stein
born, Milan Straskraba, Robert E. Ulanowicz, Christian Wissel, Wilhelm Wind
horst and Roland von Ziehl berg.
Kiel, Januar 1998 Maren Leupelt and Felix Muller
Contents
Chapter 1 Introduction: Targets, Goals and Orientors
1 Targets, Goals and Orientors
F. Milller, M. Leupelt, E.-W. Reiche and B. Breckling
1.1 The Variety of Targets 3
1.2 Human Aims: The Central Element of Environmental Conflicts 4
1.3 Environmental Targets: The Goals of Sustainability, Integrity and 5
Health
1.4 Ecological Orientors: Attractors and their Consequences 6
1.5 A Variety of Questions - and a Variety of Positions 8
Chapter 2 The Theoretical Approach: Tendencies of Ecosystem Development
2.1 The Physical Basis of Ecological Goal Functions - 15
Fundamentals, Problems and Questions
F. Milller and B. Fath
2.2 Ecological Orientors: Emergence of Basic Orientors in Evolutionary 19
Self-Organization
H. Bassel
2.3 Ecological Orientors: Pattern and Process of Succession in Relation 34
to Ecological Orientors
U. Broring and G. Wiegleb
2.4 Thermodynamic Orientors: Exergy as a Goal Function in Ecological 63
Modeling and as an Ecological Indicator for the Description of
Ecosystem Development
S. E. l¢rgensen and S. N. Nielsen
2.5 Thermodynamic Orientors: Exergy as a Holistic Ecosystem Indica- 87
tor: A Case Study
1. C. Marques, M. A. Pardal, S. N. Nielsen and S. E. l¢rgensen
2.6 Thermodynamic Orientors: How to Use Thermodynamic Concepts 102
in Ecology
Y. Svirezhev
