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Earth Fully updated throughout, including revised illustrations and
newimagesfromNASAmissions,thisneweditionprovidesan
overview of Earth’s history from a planetary science perspec-
tive,forundergraduatesinearthscience,planetaryscience,and
astronomy.TheevolutionoftheEarthisdescribedinthecon-
Evolution of a Habitable World
text of what we know about other planets and the cosmos at
large,fromtheoriginofthecosmostotheprocessesthatshape
Second edition planetaryenvironments,andfromtheoriginsoflifetotheinner
workingsofcells.
Keyfeatures
(cid:2)
Integrates astronomy, earth science, planetary science, and
astrobiology to give students the whole picture of how the
Earthhascometoitspresentstate.
(cid:2)
Presentsconceptsinnontechnicallanguageandavoidsmathe-
maticaltreatmentswherepossible,allowingstudentstograsp
conceptswithoutwadingthroughcomplexmaths.
(cid:2)
Newend-of-chaptersummariesandquestionsallowstudents
tochecktheirunderstandingandcriticalthinkingisempha-
sizedtoencouragestudentstoexploreideasscientificallyfor
themselves.
Jonathan I. Lunine is the David C. Duncan Professor in the
Physical Sciences at Cornell University. His research inter-
ests center broadly on planetary origin and evolution, in our
solar system and around other stars. He works as an interdis-
ciplinaryscientistontheCassinimissiontoSaturn,andonthe
JamesWebbSpaceTelescope,andisalsoaco-investigatoron
the Juno mission, which launched for Jupiter in August 2011.
Dr.Lunineistheauthorofover230scientificpapersandbesides
thefirsteditionofthisbook(CambridgeUniversityPress,1999),
hehasalsowrittenAstrobiology:AMultidisciplinaryApproach
(Pearson Addison-Wesley, 2005). He is a member of the US
National Academy of Sciences, and a fellow of the American
AssociationfortheAdvancementofScienceandtheAmerican
GeophysicalUnion.
i
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ii
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Earth Evolution of a
Habitable World
Second edition
Jonathan I. Lunine
Cornell University
iii
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cambridge university press
Cambridge,NewYork,Melbourne,Madrid,CapeTown,
Singapore,Sa˜oPaulo,Delhi,MexicoCity
CambridgeUniversityPress
TheEdinburghBuilding,CambridgeCB28RU,UK
PublishedintheUnitedStatesofAmericabyCambridgeUniversityPress,NewYork
www.cambridge.org
Informationonthistitle:www.cambridge.org/9780521850018
Firstedition(cid:2)C CambridgeUniversityPress1999
Secondedition(cid:2)C JonathanI.Lunine2013
Thispublicationisincopyright.Subjecttostatutoryexception
andtotheprovisionsofrelevantcollectivelicensingagreements,
noreproductionofanypartmaytakeplacewithoutthewritten
permissionofCambridgeUniversityPress.
Firstpublished1999
Reprinted2000
Secondedition2013
PrintedintheUnitedKingdomattheUniversityPress,Cambridge
AcataloguerecordforthispublicationisavailablefromtheBritishLibrary
LibraryofCongressCataloguinginPublicationdata
ISBN978-0-521-85001-8Hardback
ISBN978-0-521-61519-8Paperback
Additionalresourcesforthispublicationatwww.cambridge.org/lunine
CambridgeUniversityPresshasnoresponsibilityforthepersistenceor
accuracyofURLsforexternalorthird-partyinternetwebsitesreferredto
inthispublication,anddoesnotguaranteethatanycontentonsuch
websitesis,orwillremain,accurateorappropriate.
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CONTENTS
Preface pageix
Part I The astronomical planet: Earth’s place in the cosmos
1 AnintroductorytourofEarth’scosmic 3.2 Radioactivity 29
neighborhood 3 3.3 Conservationofenergy,and
1.1 Ancientattemptstodeterminethescale thermodynamics 29
ofthecosmos 3 3.4 Electromagneticspectrum 30
1.2 Briefintroductiontothesolarsystem 4 3.5 AbundancesintheSun 31
Summary 6 Summary 33
Questions 7 Questions 34
Furtherreading 7 References 34
Reference 7
4 Fusion,fission,sunlight,andelement
2 Largestandsmallestscales 9 formation 35
Introduction 9 Introduction 35
2.1 Scientificnotation 9 4.1 Starsandnuclearfusion 35
2.2 MotionsofEarthinthecosmos 9 4.2 ElementproductionintheBigBang 38
2.3 Cosmicdistances 13 4.3 Elementproductionduringnuclearfusion
2.4 Microscopicconstitutionofmatter 17 instars 38
Summary 22 4.4 Productionofotherelementsinstars:s,r,
Questions 22 andpprocesses 39
Generalreading 23 4.5 Nonstellarelementproduction 41
References 23 4.6 Elementproductionandlife 41
Summary 42
3 Forcesandenergy 25 Questions 42
Introduction 25 References 43
3.1 Forcesofnature 25
Part II The measurable planet: tools to discern the history of Earth and the planets
5 Determinationofcosmicandterrestrial Questions 53
ages 47 Generalreading 53
Introduction 47 References 54
5.1 Overviewofagedating 47
5.2 Theconceptofhalf-life 47 6 OtherusesofisotopesforEarthhistory 55
5.3 Carbon-14dating 49 Introduction 55
5.4 Measurementofparentsanddaughters: 6.1 Stableisotopes,seafloorsediments,
rubidium–strontium 50 andclimate 55
5.5 Fissiontrackdating 52 6.2 ApossibletemperaturehistoryofEarth
5.6 Caveatemptor 52 fromcherts 57
Summary 53 Summary 59
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vi CONTENTS
Questions 60 8.6 RadioisotopicdatingofEarthrocks 79
Generalreading 60 8.7 Geologictimescale 79
References 60 8.8 Agrandsequence 80
8.9 Thegeologictimescaleasamap 81
7 Relativeagedatingofcosmicand Summary 81
terrestrialevents:thecrateringrecord 61 Questions 81
Introduction 61 Generalreading 82
7.1 Processofimpactcratering 61 References 82
7.2 Usingcraterstodateplanetarysurfaces 62
7.3 Crateringonplanetarybodieswith 9 Platetectonics:anintroductiontothe
atmospheres 68 process 83
7.4 Impactorsthroughtime 70 Introduction 83
Summary 70 9.1 Earlyevidenceforandhistorical
Questions 70 developmentofplatetectonics 83
References 71 9.2 Genesisofplatetectonicsafter
WorldWarII 84
8 Relativeagedatingofterrestrialevents: 9.3 Thebasicmodelofplatetectonics 87
geologiclayeringandgeologictime 73 9.4 Pastmotionsoftheplatesand
Introduction 73 supercontinents 91
8.1 Catastrophismversusuniformitarianism 73 9.5 Drivingforcesofplatemotions 94
8.2 EstimatingtheageofEarth,without 9.6 Anendtotechniquesandthestartof
radioisotopes 73 history 95
8.3 Geologicprocessesandtheircyclical Summary 95
nature 74 Questions 95
8.4 Principlesofgeologicsuccession 76 Generalreading 95
8.5 Fossils 77 References 96
Part III The historical planet: Earth and solar system through time
10 Formationofthesolarsystem 99 11.9 TheLateHeavyBombardment 126
Introduction 99 11.10 FromtheHadeanintotheArchean:
10.1 Timescaleofcosmologicalevents formationofthefirststablecontinental
leadinguptosolarsystemformation 99 rocks 127
10.2 Formationofstarsandplanets 100 Summary 128
10.3 Primitivematerialpresentinthesolar Questions 128
systemtoday 105 Generalreading 129
10.4 Thesearchforotherplanetarysystems 107 References 129
10.5 Summaryofplanetformation 110
Summary 111 12 TheArcheaneonandtheoriginoflife
Questions 111 I Propertiesofandsitesforlife 131
Generalreading 111 Introduction 131
References 112 12.1 Definitionoflifeandessentialworkings 131
12.2 Thebasicunitoflivingorganisms:
11 TheHadeanEarth 113 thecell 135
Introduction 113 12.3 Energeticprocessesthatsustainlife 136
11.1 Bulkcompositionoftheplanets 113 12.4 Othermeansofutilizingenergy 136
11.2 InternalstructureofEarth 117 12.5 Elementalnecessitiesoflife:abrief
11.3 Accretion:thebuildingupofplanets 120 examination 138
11.4 Earlydifferentiationafteraccretion 121 12.6 Solarsystemsitesforlife 140
11.5 Radioactiveheating 122 Summary 146
11.6 Formationofanironcore 123 Questions 147
11.7 FormationoftheMoon 123 Generalreading 148
11.8 OriginofEarth’satmosphere,ocean,and References 148
organicreservoir 125
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CONTENTS vii
13 TheArcheaneonandtheoriginoflife 16.1 Abundancesoftheelementsinterrestrial
II Mechanisms 149 rocks 189
Introduction 149 16.2 Mineralstructure 190
13.1 Thermodynamicsandlife 149 16.3 Partialmeltingandtheformationofbasalts 191
13.2 Therawmaterialsoflife:synthesisandthe 16.4 Formationofandesitesandgranites 192
importanceofhandedness 151 16.5 Formationofprotocontinentsinthe
13.3 Twoapproachestolife’sorigin 152 Archean 195
13.4 Thevesicleapproachandautocatalysis 152 16.6 TheArchean–Proterozoictransition 196
13.5 TheRNAworld:asecondoption 154 16.7 AftertheProterozoic:modernplate
13.6 Theessentialsofacellandtheunification tectonics 197
ofthetwoapproaches 156 16.8 Venus:anEarth-sizedplanetwithoutplate
13.7 TheArcheansituation 158 tectonics 198
Summary 159 16.9 Waterandplatetectonics 199
Questions 159 16.10 Continents,theMoon,andthelengthof
Generalreading 160 Earth’sday 200
References 160 16.11 Entreetothemodernworld 201
Summary 201
14 Thefirstgreenhousecrisis:thefaintyoung Questions 201
Sun 161 Generalreading 202
Introduction 161 References 202
14.1 Thecaseforanequableclimateinthe
Archean 161 17 Theoxygenrevolution 203
14.2 ThefaintyoungSun 161 Introduction 203
14.3 Thegreenhouseeffect 162 17.1 Themodernoxygencycle 203
14.4 Primarygreenhousegases 164 17.2 Thebalanceofoxygenwithand
14.5 ImplicationsforEarthduringthefaint withoutlife 205
youngSunera 164 17.3 LimitsonoxygenlevelsonearlyEarth 205
14.6 Paleosolsandthecarbondioxide 17.4 Historyoftheriseofoxygen 207
abundance 166 17.5 Balancebetweenoxygenlossandgain 207
14.7 Carbondioxidecyclingandearlycrustal 17.6 Reservoirsofoxygenandreducedgases 208
tectonics 167 17.7 HistoryofoxygenonEarth 209
14.8 AbalanceuniquetoEarth,andalingering 17.8 Shieldagainstultravioletradiation 210
conundrum 170 17.9 Onsetofeukaryoticlife 211
Summary 171 Summary 212
Questions 171 Questions 213
Generalreading 172 References 213
References 172
18 ThePhanerozoic:floweringandextinction
15 ClimatehistoriesofMarsandVenus,and ofcomplexlife 215
thehabitabilityofplanets 173 Introduction 215
Introduction 173 18.1 Evolution 217
15.1 Venus 173 18.2 Ediacaran–Cambrianrevolution 220
15.2 Mars 178 18.3 MassextinctioneventsinthePhanerozoic 223
15.3 WasMarsreallywarminthepast? 181 18.4 Cretaceous–Tertiaryextinction 223
15.4 PuttingaMartianhistorytogether 184 18.5 AglobalviewofEarth’shistorysofar 227
15.5 ImplicationsofVenusianandMartian Summary 228
historyforlifeelsewhere 184 Questions 228
15.6 Thefinitelifeofourbiosphere 185 Generalreading 229
Summary 186 References 229
Questions 186
Generalreading 187 19 ClimatechangeacrossthePhanerozoic 231
References 187 Introduction 231
19.1 Thesupercontinentcycle 231
16 Earthintransition:fromtheArcheantothe 19.2 Effectsofcontinentalbreakupsand
Proterozoic 189 collisions 233
Introduction 189 19.3 EvidenceoficeagesonEarth 233
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viii CONTENTS
19.4 Causesoftheiceages 234 20.2 Thevagariesofunderstandinghuman
19.5 Cretaceousclimate 235 origins 245
19.6 ThegreatTertiarycooldown 237 20.3 Humanity’staxonomy 246
19.7 CausesofthePleistoceneiceageandits 20.4 Thefirststeps:Australopithecines 246
oscillations 239 20.5 ThegenusHomo:OutofAfricaI 247
19.8 Savedfrominstability:Earth’sversus 20.6 OutofAfricaII 248
Mars’orbitalcycle 241 20.7 Finalact:Neanderthalsandanencounter
19.9 EffectsofthePleistoceneiceage:a withourhumanity 249
preview 242 20.8 Thismodernworld 253
Summary 242 Summary 254
Questions 243 Questions 254
References 243 Generalreading 254
References 254
20 Towardtheageofhumankind 245
Introduction 245
20.1 Pleistocenesetting 245
Part IV The once and future planet
21 Climatechangeoverthepastfewhundred 22.6 Globalwarming:along-termview 283
thousandyears 259 22.7 Postscript:humaneffectsontheupper
Introduction 259 atmosphere–ozonedepletion 284
21.1 Therecordinicecores 259 Summary 284
21.2 Climatefromplantpollenandpackrat Questions 285
middenstudies 261 Generalreading 285
21.3 Treerings 264 References 285
21.4 ClimatevariabilityinthelateHolocene 266
21.5 TheYoungerDryas:asignpostforthe 23 Limitedresources:thehumandilemma 287
oceanicroleinclimate 267 Introduction 287
21.6 Intothepresent 268 23.1 Theexpandinghumanpopulation 287
Summary 268 23.2 Prospectsforagriculture 288
Questions 269 23.3 Energyresources 289
Generalreading 269 23.4 Economicallyimportantminerals 292
References 269 23.5 Pollution 294
23.6 Canwegoback? 295
22 Human-inducedglobalwarming 271 Summary 296
Introduction 271 Questions 296
22.1 TherecordsofCO abundanceandglobal Generalreading 296
2
temperaturesinmoderntimes 271 References 297
22.2 ModelingtheresponseofEarthto
increasingamountsofgreenhousegases 273 24 Coda:theonceandfutureearth 299
22.3 Predictedeffectsofglobalwarming 276
22.4 Thedifficultyofproof:weatherversus
climate 280 Index 301
22.5 RoleoftheoceansinEarth’sclimate 281
Colorplatesectionisbetweenpagesxxandxx.
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PREFACE
Whenthefirsteditionofthisbookwaspublishedsome15years hasbroughtus.Theastuteinstructororstudentwillbeableto
ago,astrobiologywasnotrecognizedasaseparateacademicdis- figure out that the book is suitable for a course in an astrobi-
cipline,andfewuniversitiesandcollegesofferedcoursesinthe ology program, just as one might understand that a textbook
subjectperse.Butthequestionofwhatmakesaplanetcapable entitled Classical Mechanics is suitable for covering part of a
of sustaining life, and whether inhabited planets exist in large physicscurriculum.Thelevelremainsthesame,partshavebeen
numbers in the cosmos, was long a popular draw for courses updatedorrewritten,newfiguresincluded,andquizquestions
in planetary science, geology, and astronomy. I wrote Earth: expanded.Asbefore,thebookalsowillbeusefultothosewho
Evolution of aHabitable Worldso asto encourageinstructors arenotenrolledincoursesbutwanttolearnsomethingofEarth’s
offreshmenandsophomorenon-sciencemajorstotakeacon- historyfromaplanetaryperspective.However,Iamwellaware
sciouslyplanetarybentincoveringhowourhomeplanetcame thatthereismuchmorecompetitiontodayforboththestudent
to be, its place in the overall evolution of the cosmos, how it and interested layman, and I can only hope that this particu-
becamehabitableandinhabited,andhowlifeandtheenviron- larnarrativefindsitsnichewithintheplethoraofastrobiology
mentevolvedtogether(sometimescoupled,sometimesnot)to books.
thepresentday.Andinclosingwithchaptersonhuman-induced ThefirsteditionofthebookwaspreparedwhenIwasonthe
globalwarminganddepletionofresources,Iwishedtoprovide faculty of the Lunar and Planetary Laboratory, Department of
a “cosmic perspective” via the rest of the book to some very PlanetarySciences,TheUniversityofArizona.Iremainforever
down-to-Earthproblems.Inthebreadthoftopicsandperspec- in debt for the help, encouragement, and contributions of my
tive I took in writing it, Earth was alone in its chosen subject colleaguesthere.ThesecondeditionwaspreparedwhileIwas
area,withonlyafewnotableexceptions. on leave of absence to the University of Rome Tor Vergata,
Todayastrobiologyisathrivingacademicfieldwithadaunt- Rome, Italy, and completed here at Cornell University where
ingnumberandvarietyoftextbooksonthesubject.Inpreparing Inowteach;bothoftheseinstitutionsprovidedassistanceand
arevisededitionIconsideredmakingthebookmoreconsciously encouragement.LikewiseIthankPhilEklund,whoaswiththe
astrobiological,eitherbyaligningthecontentsmorecloselywith first edition provided stimulating comments, suggestions, and
the typical survey treatment – or by simply adding the word figureideas.MywifeCynthiaLunineillustratedthefirstedition
“Astrobiology”tothetitle.Butneitheroptionseemedtometo butothercommitmentspreventedherfrompreparingnewones
dojusticetothemainthemeofthetext,whichremainsthestory fortherevisededition.Nonethelesstheclarityandattractiveness
of ourplanetEarthfrom its cosmic beginningsto thepresent- ofstylearethedirectresultofherwork,forwhichIamdeeply
day practical dilemmas our success as a technological species grateful.
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