Table Of ContentDYSLEXIA
NEURONAL, COGNITIVE & LINGUISTIC
ASPECTS
Proceedings of an International Symposium held at the Wenner-Gren
Center, Stockholm, June 3-4, 1980
Edited by
Yngve Zotterman
Organizing Committee:
Curt VOn Euler, M.D., Professor
Ove Franzen, Ph.D., ASS. Professor
Ragnar Granit, M.D., Professor, N.P.
Gunnar Lennerstrand, M.D., Ph.D.
Britta WaSSmOUth, Remedial teacher and psychologist
Yngve Zotterm2in, M.D., Professor, Chairman
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First edition 1982
Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data
Main entry under title:
Dyslexia: neuronal, cognitive, and linguistic
aspects.
(Wenner-Gren Center international symposium
series; v. 35)
"Sponsored by the Ministry of Education, the
Swedish Medical Research Council and the
Wenner-Gren Center Foundation"—Pref.
1. Dyslexia—Congresses. I. Zotterman,
Yngve. II. Sweden. Utbildningsdepartementet.
III. Statens medicinska forskningsrad (Sweden)
IV. Wenner-Grenska samfundet. V. Series.
[DNLM: 1. Dyslexia—Congresses. W 3 WE429
v. 35 1980/WM 475 D9984 1980]
RC394.W6D97 1982 616.85*53 81-17717
AACR2
British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data
Dyslexia.—(Wenner-Gren Center international
symposium series; 35)
1. Dyslexia—Congresses
I. Zotterman, Yngve II. Series
616.85,53 RC394.W6
ISBN 0-08-026863-3
In order to make this volume available as economically
and as rapidly as possible the authors' typescripts have
been reproduced in their original forms. This method un-
fortunately has its typographical limitations but it is
hoped that they in no way distract the reader.
Printed in Great Britain by A. Wheaton & Co. Ltd., Exeter
LIST PARTICIPANTS
Gunilla Ahlsen Ove Franzen
Department of Physiology Department of Psychology
University of Gothenburg University of Uppsala
S-400 33 GOTHENBURG S-752 20 UPPSALA
Sweden Sweden
Anders Dun6r Max Frisk
Department of Psychology Department of Children Psychiatry
University of Stockholm Akademiska Hospital
S-113 85 STOCKHOLM S-750 14 UPPSALA
Sweden Sweden
Ake Edfeldt Albert Galaburda
Department of Pedagogics Beth Israel Hospital
University of Stockholm 330 Brookline Avenue, K-4
S-106 91 STOCKHOLM BOSTON Massachusetts 02215
Sweden USA
Gunilla Eklund Hans-Jorgen Gjessing
The Board of Education Department of Pedagogical Psychology
S-106 42 STOCKHOLM University of Bergen
Sweden 5014 BERGEN
Norway
Curt von Euler
Department of Neurophysiology Ragnar Granit
Karolinska Institute Eriksbergsgatan 14
S-104 01 STOCKHOLM S-114 30 STOCKHOLM
Sweden Sweden
Susan Fowler Sten Grillner
71 A Hamilton Road Department of Physiology III
READING Karolinska Institute
Berkshire Lidingovagen 1
England S-114 33 STOCKHOLM
Sweden
vii
viii List of Participants
Juhani Hyvarinen Brenda Milner
Department of Physiology Montreal Neurological Institute
University of Helsinki 3801 University Street
SF-0017 HELSINKI MONTREAL
Finland Canada H3A 2B4
Lea Hyvarinen Britt Mogard
Department of Psychology Education and Cultural Affairs
University of Helsinki S-103 10 STOCKHOLM
SF-00100 HELSINKI Sweden
Finland
Kerstin Norrsell
Torleiv H0ien The Eye Clinic
Stavanger Teacher Training College Hospital of Mdlndal
Ullandhaug S-431 20 M0LNDAL
4001 STAVANGER Sweden
Norway
David Ottoson
David Ingvar Department of Physiology
Department of Clinical Neurophysio Karolinska Institute
University Hospital S-104 01 STOCKHOLM
S-221 85 LUND Sweden
Sweden
Paul Parlenvi
Sven Landgren Mor Annas vag 35
Department of Physiology S-443 00 LERUM
University of Umea Sweden
S-901 87 UMEA
Sweden Daisy Schalling
Department of Psychiatry
Pentti Laurinen Karolinska Hospital
Department of General Psychology S-104 01 STOCKHOLM
University of Helsinki Sweden
SF-00170 HELSINKI
Finland Per Sennerfeldt
The Board of Education
Gunnar Lennerstrand S-106 42 STOCKHOLM
Department of Ophthalmology Sweden
University Hospital
S-581 85 LINKOPING Herbert Silfvenius
Sweden Department of Physiology
University of Umea
Bjorn Lindblom S-901 87 UMEA
Department of Linguistics Sweden
University of Stockholm
S-106 91 STOCKHOLM Pal Skagseth
Sweden Health Council
Engen 39
Ingvar Lundberg 5000 BERGEN
Department of Psychology Norway
University of Umea
S-901 87 UMEA John Stein
Sweden University Laboratory of Physiology
Parks Road
OXFORD 0X1 3PT
England
List of Participants ix
Goran Stigmar Britta Wassmouth
Department of Ophthalmology St. Nygatan 6
University Hospital S-111 27 STOCKHOLM
S-221 85 LUND Sweden
Sweden
Anne-Marie Wredlund
Carl-Gustaf Soderberg The Board of Education
Department of Linguistics S-106 42 STOCKHOLM
University of Umea Sweden
S-901 85 UMEA
Sweden Eran Zaidel
Department of Psychology
Gbsta udden University of California
Gbtgatan 9 LOS ANGELES
S-116 46 STOCKHOLM California 90024
Sweden USA
Per Udden Yngve Zotterman
Hofstrasse 1 Wenner-Gren Center
CH-6064 KERNS Sveavagen 166
Switzerland S-113 46 STOCKHOLM
Sweden
EDITOR'S PREFACE
This volume contains the proceedings of an international symposium on
"Dyslexia: Neuronal, Cognitive and Linguistic Aspects", held in Wenner-Gren Center,
Stockholm, on June 3-4, 1980, sponsored by the Ministry of Education, the Swedish
Medical Research Council and the Wenner-Gren Center Foundation.
The meeting was organized by a small group of people within the field
of neurophysiology, psychophysiology, ophthalmology and teaching. We had a strong
feeling that although dyslexia is a rather frequent phenomena in Sweden as any-
where else, very little is known of its etiology. As long as this basic knowledge
is lacking we will be limited to pure empirical methods in the training of these
children to learn to read and write. For that reason we invited a small group of
scientists and teachers from Canada, England, Finland, Norway, USA and Sweden who
thanks to their own research in the field of motor and sensory mechanisms of speech
could give us valuable data for the analysis of the deficiencies in the behaviour
displayed by dyslectic children.
Although the transactions did not lead to any definitie solution as
regards the cause of dyslexia, the discussions here published nearly in extenso
gave, however, definite clues of several lines of approach for future research
elucidating the cause of the different kinds of disorders in the ability of reading
and writing.
On behalf of the organizing committee I wish to express our sincere
thanks to the scientists who took part in this conference and wish them luck in
their future endeavours to the benefit of the children suffering from impairments
in their ability to read and write.
Stockholm in June 1981
Yngve Zotterman
xi
OPENING ADDRESS
BRITT MOG&RD
Cabinet Minister
The great majority of children starting school do so with great expec-
tations of learning to read. Surveys have actually shown that this interest is so
powerful that hardly anything can prevent an inquisitive seven-year-old from learn-
ing the letters of the alphabet and eventually putting them together into something
intelligibile. Exaggeratinq somewhat, the method by which readinq is learned could
therefore be said to be of fairly minor importance. Most children are so determined
to learn that they overcome the difficulties in their path.
Some of these beginners will experience things differently. To begin
with they are just as interested in penetrating the mysteries of the alphabet, but
in their case the learning process goes awry. The letters get jumbled and will not
let themselves be marchalled into a meaningful text. The children see their class-
mates forging ahead while they themselves wrestle with letters which are hard to
copy, comprehend or enjoy. The other children can, they cannot. This situation
takes the wind out of their sails.
These are pupils of normal intelligence. No damage has been discovered
in terms of speech, vision or hearing. They have played quite naturally together
with other children and enjoyed the same things, but now they suddenly discover
that they can't manage.
Since so much of our acquisition of knowledge is dependent on the written
word, the effects are of course amplified in all the subjects studied by those who
are unable to read or write. Reading becomes a bore, and even books for children
and young persons and, later on, adult books and newspapers remain inacc ssible to
these pupils.
There are figures indicating that between 70 and 80 per cent of the
inmates of our prisons, suffer from reading and writing disabilities. I am not say-
ing that reading and writing disabilities lead to criminality, but it is obvious
that a person who is unable to read or write is more vulnerable than person of nor-
mal ability in these respects.
Here in Sweden, alarming reports of one kind or another are published
from time to time. Last autumn a great deal of attention was aroused by a televi-
sion programme showing how adults who are 'functionally illiterate' experience
their eductional career and their everyday life. In the debate to which the pro-
gramme gave rise in the Swedish press, it was said that there were between 1.2 and
xiii
xiv B. Moglrd
1.6 million functional illiterates in this country, in other words that one Swede
in five was unable to read and write properly. But the definition of reading
ability is quite a problem in itself. No doubt many people feel functionally
illiterate in certain situations. The instructions accompanying our income tax
forms or other printed matter from our public authorities are sometimes couched in
such language that one begins to doubt one's own literacy. But we do have a problem
here: many adults today are' genuinely unable to read and understand instructions
and information which they need to assimilate in order to cope with life in our
society. This, however, is a problem which should be tackled from another angle:
the authorities must learn to write in a language which all citizens can understand.
The present symposium is concerned with a smaller group, but a group
which is still far too large, namely people who cannot even read a simple text or
who have great difficulty in reading.
It is not easy for a reading person to appreciate the implications of
this situation. For my own part I have worked with reading and writing disabilities
and have succeeded, after a great deal of effort, in penetrating the experiences
of pupils labouring under these difficulties. At least, I thought so until recently
I was given a further reminder of our lack of empathy. Reading whodunnits is one
of my relaxations, and recently I obtained a copy of "A Judgement in Stone" by Ruth
Rendell. She describes, most acutely, a woman who is only able to recognize a few
letters of the alphabet but has learned at an early age to conceal her handicap,
so that when she is 40 years old there is still nobody who knows. We are shown,
through her, what it is like living in a world where reading comes naturally to
everybody else, how suspicious she is when she sees something written on a notice
board, how helpless she is when given a piece of paper with instructions written
on it, how she has longed for a television set for years but is incapable of the
formfilling which this requires, how she eventually gets a television set through
her job but when it breaks down is unable to look up the appropriate number in her
telephone directory, how she goes to a railway station and whenever she asks which
platform she is to go to receives the same answer: It's on the notive board. She
develops a fear of other people, a craving for isolation, emotional coldness -
until in the end, of course, disaster supervenes. It is compulsive reading.
In my opinion it is absolutely essential for more people to realize the
implications of the handicap which reading and writing disabilities amount to.
Otherwise it will be impossible for us to provide adequate assistance and we will
fail to observe that not the least of our tasks must be to sustain the pupils' self-
confidence. This applies to everybody,but it applies especially to teachers. I am
convinced that our junior level teachers fully realize the problems which reading
and writing disabilities can entail. On the other hand I know that the problem and
its consequences are not always observed at higher levels. Many people imagine that
reading and writing disabilities only affect language subjects, but all subjects -
mathematics included - require an ability to read and write. A superficial know-
ledge of the problem is not enough; an active determination to achieve empathy is
called for.
Reading education is a pre-eminently individual process, and it must
proceed in such a manner that the pupil is not subjected to stress, is allowed to
work at his or her own speed and is given the right stimulus, added to which the
teacher-pupil relationship must be one of confidence and trust. Reading and writing
practice is not the exclusive concern of our Swedish teachers or our remedial
teachers. Everybody who in one way or another gets the children to,read or receives
written work from them must pay attention to the problems of pupils with reading
and writing difficulties.
What use is it to the pupil our having instructions to the effect that
Opening Address xv
special allowance must be made when awarding marks to pupils with reading and
writing disabilities, if the problems are not observed and treated with all the
means at our disposal? The outlook for eleven-year-olds with a poor command of
reading and writing is often very bleak. Teaching goes on regardless. Most know-
ledge is derived from books, and the poor reader has difficulty in keepinq up. In
practice he is put out of the running, and the struggle for the really high marks
is reserved for others. Difficulty in expressing oneself is writing means poor
marks for tests.
The teaching of many school subjects in Sweden has come to be dominated
for a great deal of the time by work books in which the pupils have to give prede-
termined answers on a particular line. There are cases of pupils experimenting with
acids and bases and then having to turn to their work books and tick off the right
alternative for the colour assumed by the litmus paper.Teaching of this kind is
definitely not calculated to strengthen the learning of language or concepts, and
certainly not where poor readers and writers are concerned if the answers have to
be extracted from textbooks with vast quantities of small print.
It is important to remember that we are talking about pupils of normal
ability, pupils who would do well with other teaching materials or other teaching
routines. Sweden has developed quite a few ways of assisting children with reading
and writing disabilities. Unfortunately I cannot claim that we have been successful
in helping all of them. Particularly those with grave disabilities remain unhelped
- owing to lack of resources, but also for lack of knowledge and empathy.
Oddly enough, the underlying causes of dyslexia are still to a great
extent unknown. But we know that persons who receive little or no support in their
early linguistic development are quite hard hit by these problems. I have studied
with interest the research findings of the Norwegian Kirsten Pauss at the Nic Waals
Institute. His theory that developments in early infancy, from birth to eighteen
months, affect subsequent ability to learn a language is well worth pondering. His
method of treatment, with the stipulation of parental participation as well as
powerful therapeutic elements for the pupil, may be a signpost for persons with
really grave reading and writing disabilities. Moreover, some of these pupils also
have other problems to contend with, such as retarded speech, vision impairments
or perhaps hearing damage.
I have also studied theories maintaining that reading disabilities stem
from vision defects of various kinds. Of course, the correct reproduction of
letters of symbols in a simple vision test is one thing, but a completely different
mechanism may need to be checked in order to ascertain whether co-ordinated vision
functions, whether symbols can be put together to form an intelligible message and
so on.
And this brings me on to a field with which I am not at all familiar,
namely the functioning of the brain, the way in which concepts originate and skills
are trained, and the nature of the finely adjusted mechanisms which have to co-
operate in order for correct perception to be achieved.
If in the course of your work you can help us to identify the causes
which combine to bring about dyslexia, we will be able to take steps to diagnose
the children concerned at an early stage. We would then be able to provide the
necessary support and stimulus far more promptly. Even if reading and writing dis-
abilities cannot be prevented, action may perhaps be needed to ensure that these
problems will not be so great in future. We know that early support in the form of
conversations with children, story-telling and frequent association with books helps
to build up concepts and vocabulary in a positive way.If all parents were aware of
the influence they can exert by such simple means as a bedtime story every evening,
xvi B. Mogard
a great deal would be gained. As it is, many children are left on their watching
television without anybody to talk to about what they have seen.
What I want is for research findings to be translatable into concrete
programmes of action and for the results of researchers' endeavours to be made
available to ordinary people. This means that you must try to explain, in terms
which everybody can understand, what we should all do in order to help our pupils
to attain the knowledge which is such a fundamental ingredient of their continuing
success in life. We must do everything in our power to deploy our resources in
such a way that no pupil - I repeat, no pupil - need leave school without the
necessary command of reading and writing.
If in the course of this symposium you can help us to chart some of the
impediments to reading education, the time and the resources involved will have
been well spent. I wish you every success.
