Table Of ContentIt
Editorial Abstract: What follows is wise counsel about the impor
tance of paying attention to history. The Honorable Ike Skelton
Ain’t reflects on similarities among various historical events and our
technological, organizational, and leadership challenges in the
military today. Particularly in the joint and coalition arenas, we
can profit from the beneficial insight that historical analysis pro
New
vides. As the preeminent military power in the world today, we
should remain cognizant of historical precedents if we wish to
continue to successfully organize, train, equip, and employ aero
space power.
REP.IKE SKELTON (D-Mo.)*
*I wish to express my gratitude to Maj Mary F. O’Brien, USAF, for her insight and research contributions in the preparation of this
article.
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It Ain’t New
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6 AEROSPACE POWER JOURNAL FALL 2000
Unless history can teach us how to look at the future, the history of war is but
a bloody romance.
—J. F. C. Fuller
IN MY ROLE as ranking member of the the United States armed forces have a long
House Armed Services Committee, I rely tradition of cooperation among the services
on the lessons of history to help me un in order to accomplish their missions.
derstand and reach decisions about the
future of the armed forces of today. Over the One of America’s First Joint Operations: The Siege of
years, I have discovered that most dilemmas Veracruz
that face the military are actually not new is-
For example, the siege of Veracruz in 1847
sues. Frequently, I find similar situations from
during the Mexican War was the most suc
the past to use as guideposts to frame the is-
cessful of many joint operations during that
sues of today.
war.1 This operation, planned and executed
Some national-security professionals, both
by the Army and Navy, represented the first
civilian and military, think that a brand-new
major amphibious operation in American his-
era of warfare is at hand. They believe that
tory and the largest one conducted until
modern battles will be joint operations fought
World War II. Maj Gen Winfield Scott, the
by loose coalitions of countries with various
senior Army commander, developed a plan
national interests. They also believe that US
that was clearly joint in every sense of the
Air Force, Army, Navy, and Marine Corps
word. He placed great reliance on the Navy in
forces will use controversial weapons pro
order to execute his plan, including the un
duced by twenty-first-century technological
precedented step of putting Army transports
breakthroughs. In fact, true students of mili
temporarily under the command of Com
tary history realize that these concepts—joint
modore David Conner of the US Navy.2 Gen
operations, coalition warfare, and the inte
eral Scott also created a joint procurement
gration of new technology—have their roots
process and developed command and control
in battles of yesteryear. They look to the past
procedures to allow the Army and Navy to
for lessons on how to fight today.
communicate with each other during the op
eration. Army troops on the transport ships
Joint Operations needed small landing craft in order to get
ashore, so Scott had “surfboats” specifically
The nature of modern warfare de
constructed for the amphibious assault. Al
mands that we fight as a joint team.
though these vessels were contracted through
This was important yesterday, it is es
the Army quartermaster, a naval officer—Lt
sential today, and it will be even more George M. Totten—designed them.3 In order
important tomorrow.
to synchronize the Army and Navy effort,
—Gen John Shalikashvili
General Scott and Commodore Conner
I’ve noticed an increase in the number of worked out a new set of signals for supporting
people who assume that joint operations fires, loading surfboats, and assaulting the
began after enactment of the Goldwater- beach because the existing signals assumed
Nichols Department of Defense Reorganiza an all-Army invasion.4 Once the Army troops
tion Act of 1986. Nothing could be further assembled onshore, the Navy brought guns
from the truth, although our most recent and personnel off the ships to Army emplace
well-known and successful joint operation— ments in order to coordinate artillery efforts
Desert Storm—owes a great deal of its success from ship- and land-based artillery. The land
to that important legislation. The truth is that ing and successful siege at Veracruz opened
IT AIN’T NEW 7
the way for more victories during the Mexi mal range. The Air Force resisted using
can War, which resulted in the acquisition of AWACS, believing that it did not provide an
additional US territories. accurate location of hostile fighters when
they flew in proximity to friendly aircraft.
A Modern-Day Joint Operation: Desert Storm When Vice Adm Stan Arthur and Lt Gen
Chuck Horner, the Navy and Air Force com
Nearly 150 years after the siege at Veracruz,
ponent commanders, respectively, could not
Gen Norman Schwarzkopf of the US Army
reach an agreement, they asked General
commanded one of history’s most successful
Schwarzkopf to make the final determina
joint military operations. He planned to max
tion. He supported a modified Air Force po
imize the military services’ unique capabili
sition that resulted in both Admiral Arthur’s
ties at each stage of the campaign to defeat
and General Horner’s continuing their good
Iraq. The offensive air campaign phase of
working relationship and respecting each
Desert Storm integrated Air Force, Navy, Ma
other’s viewpoints.7
rine, and—to some extent—Army airpower
One can examine the success of joint opera
to strike critical Iraqi targets. His determina
tions during Desert Storm by considering the
tion to use the best of what each service had
relationship among General Schwarzkopf,
to offer continued into the ground-campaign
the supporting commanders in chief (CINC),
phase. On G day, US ground forces, consist
and the service chiefs. US Transportation
ing of two Army corps and a Marine expedi
Command provided the logistics to get the
tionary force, together with coalition ground
necessary troops and equipment in-theater;
forces, assembled more than two hundred
US Space Command warned of Scud missile
thousand soldiers to face the Iraqis. Numer
launches, and its Global Positioning System
ous ground-attack aircraft continued to bomb
satellites facilitated operations; and the geo
hostile artillery sites, armored units, supply
graphic CINCs provided air, sea, and ground
vehicles, and troops. Naval forces also con
forces from their theaters. The service chiefs
tributed to the ground offensive. Surface
fulfilled their roles as force providers to Gen
ships supported amphibious operations, and
eral Schwarzkopf, giving him all the well-
the USS Missouri (BB 63) and USS Wisconsin
trained and equipped forces he needed. They
(BB 64) bombarded Iraqi coastal positions
also acted as a source of information on how
and provided naval gunfire support to ad
best to employ these forces without trying to
vancing troops.5
interfere in the command relationships es
General Schwarzkopf was instrumental in
tablished by the Goldwater-Nichols Act.
keeping the joint effort on track. When con
flicts arose among the services over their
roles, Schwarzkopf adjudicated their differ Coalition Warfare
ences. Early in the conflict, for example, he
There is only one thing worse than
had to settle a disagreement between the
fighting with allies—and that is fight
Navy and Air Force concerning beyond-visual-
ing without them.
range rules of engagement for attacking hos
—Sir Winston S. Churchill
tile aircraft.6 Fearing incidents of fratricide,
the Air Force wanted a friendly aircraft to The Department of Defense (DOD) has in-
make two types of independent verification of creased the emphasis on training and fight
hostility before its fighter aircraft launched ing with our allies, especially since the end of
air-to-air missiles. Since Navy aircraft could the Persian Gulf War. It is important to rec
conduct only one type of verification, they ognize that, because they lack either the sup-
wanted an airborne warning and control sys port of world opinion or the military capabil
tem (AWACS) aircraft to perform the second ities to operate independently, few countries
verification. Otherwise, Navy fighters could can fight alone. The need for countries to
not use the Phoenix air-to-air missile at opti form alliances based on common national in-
8 AEROSPACE POWER JOURNAL FALL 2000
terests or security concerns has existed for bodan Milosevic to pull his forces out of
millennia. Kosovo, General Clark had to ensure that in
ternal differences among NATO countries
The Duke of Marlborough: Skilled at Coalition concerning the conduct of the campaign and
Warfare the desired outcome did not pull NATO
apart.
John Churchill, the duke of Marlborough,
To General Clark, maintaining alliance co
acted as commander of British, Dutch, Pruss
hesion during Allied Force was just as impor
ian, Danish, and other Grand Alliance forces
tant as avoiding casualties, targeting Serb
during the War of the Spanish Succession,
forces and associated targets, and minimizing
fighting four battles successfully against the
collateral damage.10 He had a difficult time
French army from 1701 to 1712. For nearly 10
keeping his targeting strategy on track be-
years, his personal diplomacy effort, unusual
cause every target required unanimous ap
at the time, was the driving force behind the
proval of the allies, some of whom opposed
daunting task of keeping the incredibly frac
the entire campaign or certain aspects of it.
tious coalition together. Churchill under-
For example, Greece and Italy opposed an ex-
stood that face-to-face meetings with allied
tended bombing campaign, France resisted
rulers and ministers in Berlin, Vienna, and
plans for a naval blockade, and Germany op
the Hague could prove more effective in re-
posed any consideration of a ground war.11
solving difficulties and formulating plans
General Clark had to rely on his diplomatic
than written communication.8 Because of his
skills to convince NATO allies of the need to
efforts, the allies gave him their confidence
escalate the campaign and to consider the
and trust, as well as control of their armies.
possibility of a ground war. He used personal
Churchill’s attempts to win over the mem
phone calls and meetings to persuade them
bers of the Grand Alliance paid off for him
to reduce bombing constraints in order to in
years later while he prepared for his last cam
tensify the campaign, yet maintain allied con
paign against the French in 1711. When his
sensus and cohesion.12
enemies in England’s new Parliament wanted
In an effort to obtain approval of two par
to replace him, other leaders of the Grand Al
ticularly important targets—the Yugoslav In
liance spoke on his behalf. The duke of
terior Ministry and the headquarters of the
Hanover and the king of Prussia threatened
Serbian special police—General Clark per
to withdraw their troops unless he remained
sonally briefed Javier Solana, NATO secre
in command, which led the rest of the Grand
tary-general, on the intricacies of targeting.
Alliance to state their strong belief that he
He included such details as the blast radius of
should continue to be in charge. They saw
warheads and how the desired point of im
him as their champion, especially since he
pact controlled whether the building would
had already led the alliance to victory in three
collapse inward or explode outward. Clark
battles against the French.9
thought it important to send a message by
striking these targets during the first missions
Gen Wesley Clark: Leading NATO’s First Fight
to Belgrade. The North Atlantic Council de-
as an Alliance
bated the request but in the end left the final
Maintaining a cohesive alliance or coalition decision to Secretary-General Solana, who
today is just as important, if not more so, than gave his approval a few days later.13
in the past. As the supreme allied com General Clark earned the admiration of
mander, Europe in mid-1999, Gen Wesley NATO for his leadership in the Balkans. Dur
Clark of the US Army led the North Atlantic ing the change-of-command ceremony for
Treaty Organization’s (NATO) first military General Clark, Lord Robertson, Solana’s suc
campaign, Operation Allied Force. In addi cessor as NATO secretary-general, praised
tion to trying to convince Yugoslav leader Slo him for his “unique combination of military
IT AIN’T NEW 9
expertise, political knowledge and diplomatic and field artillery, borrowing money, and im
skill.”14 Lord Robertson went on to say that mediately setting sail for the American coast.
General Clark was “the right man in the right The tremendous support for the operation at
place at the right time” to lead the first major Yorktown convinced General Washington to
military offensive in the 50-year history of the march his troops south instead of north to
alliance. General Clark’s command ensured New York.
NATO’s success. Meanwhile, the French defeated the
British fleet off the Virginia coast, ensuring
Allies with Unequal Military Capabilities Benefit from that Lord Cornwallis would not receive the re
Unity inforcements he urgently needed from New
York. The allied army began preparations for
In addition to ensuring shared goals among
the offensive, supported by the accurate bom
the alliance nations, coalition warfare in
bardment of the British by the French can
volves another concern. In the year since the
noneers. American and French troops suc
end of the bombing over Serbia, the United
cessfully attacked, forcing Lord Cornwallis to
States and the rest of the NATO countries
surrender. British reinforcements arrived five
have had an opportunity to study the lessons
days later, but the French fleet still controlled
learned from NATO’s first military operation.
the Chesapeake. The British returned to New
Among these many lessons, everyone empha
York without engaging French forces.16 De-
sizes and agrees that the European countries
spite the disparity in expertise, the American
have fallen behind the United States, both
and French military efforts complemented
militarily and technologically—a matter of
one another. The Americans fought for free
great concern that NATO will address over
dom and the birth of a nation, while the
the next few years. Again, this situation is not
French brought the necessary professional-
new to us, and we should not let it interfere
ism, technical expertise, and equipment.
with our reliance on our allies during times of
crisis. There was a time in American history
Operation Allied Force: American Military
when the opposite was true—we Americans
Technology Pulls Ahead
fielded the inexperienced, poorly equipped
force and had to rely on the superior capabil It quickly became clear during Allied Force
ities of our European allies. last year that US military capabilities have dra
Specifically, the American Continental matically pulled ahead of those of our Euro
Army largely owed its victory over superior pean allies. The Kosovo after-action report to
British forces during the American Revolu Congress noted this gap, especially in the
tion to the military assistance of France, areas of precision strike; mobility; and com
which sent officers, soldiers, gunpowder, and mand, control, and communications.17 This
ships to the Americans. The commander of forced the United States to conduct the ma
French forces in America also had a strong jority of the precision strike sorties, especially
hand in shaping the objectives of the war. during the first days of the conflict when the
Jean-Baptiste-Donatien de Vimeur, comte de Yugoslav air defenses remained fully opera
Rochambeau, argued for an attack on Lord tional. As it became clear to the NATO politi
Charles Cornwallis in the south despite Gen cal and military leadership that the United
George Washington’s desire to lay siege to States would bear the brunt of the cost of the
New York instead.15 The comte de Rocham military effort, the allies agreed that the Eu
beau had already begun planning for a siege ropeans would cover the majority of the cost
at Yorktown when he requested assistance of the peace enforcement and reconstruction
from the commander of the French fleet in efforts in Kosovo. Although the exact division
the Caribbean. Adm François-Joseph-Paul de of costs is the subject of spirited debate, the
Grasse responded by canceling all other mis Europeans seem to be living up to their
sions, readying every ship, obtaining troops promise.
10 AEROSPACE POWER JOURNAL FALL 2000
Even though the United States led the mil so great now and for the foreseeable future
itary effort during Allied Force, we could not that we can afford to “take a breather” from a
have carried out the entire operation without policy of constant modernization. Congress is
assistance from our European allies, who pro charged with finding the balance between the
vided personnel, equipment, and—more im two sides. Unfortunately, this is not a simple
portantly—political and diplomatic support. exercise, and we will measure the conse
One should also note that the United States quences of being wrong in the loss of Amer
benefited from use of the NATO allies’ mili ica’s sons and daughters. I find it helpful to
tary infrastructure, including military bases, look to history to study another time when
airfields, and airspace. Although the B-2 America faced a similar situation.
bomber proved very effective in operating The current debate concerning precision
from Whiteman Air Force Base in Missouri, warfare and the role it should play in future
aircraft usually must launch from a location conflicts has a strong precedent in the inte
much closer to the theater in order to ac gration of the airplane into the US military.
complish their mission. For that reason, US Prior even to the debates about establishing
forces deployed to facilities in countries the Air Force as a separate branch of the
closer to Kosovo and Serbia—such as Italy, armed services, controversy existed over the
the United Kingdom, Germany, Spain, capabilities and limitations of the airplane
France, Hungary, and others. and the role it should play. The airplane and
However, the gap in military capability— precision-guided weapons are parallel issues
certainly a reason for concern and a topic of almost one hundred years apart, with conse
discussion at the summit recognizing the 50th quences affecting doctrine, operations, tac
anniversary of NATO—could affect future al tics, and, certainly, resource priorities.
liance efforts. To reduce this gap, NATO
adopted the Defense Capabilities Initiative, Airplanes: Discovering Their Military Usefulness
which seeks to enhance allied capabilities in
The introduction of the aircraft to the US
deployability and mobility; sustainability and
military did not proceed smoothly. Many po
logistics; effective engagement; survivability
litical and military leaders failed to see the
of forces and infrastructure; and command,
need to expend resources to develop military
control, and information systems. The overall
aviation to its fullest potential. After World
goal is to improve interoperability between
War I, Army leaders for the most part consid
US military forces and the rest of NATO.
ered the airplane little more than another
form of reconnaissance and artillery, and the
Integrating Technological United States did not follow Great Britain’s
example in establishing a separate air force.
Innovations into the Military
As the United States began to focus on do
mestic spending after the war, Gen Henry
We must be the great arsenal of democ
“Hap” Arnold and Gen William “Billy”
racy.
Mitchell began a public-relations campaign
—President Franklin D. Roosevelt
around the country to increase support for
DOD feels strongly, as do some members funding the Air Service. The support gener
of Congress, that other nations can overcome ated by their demonstrations forced the Navy
the technological advantage long enjoyed by to agree to a bombing test in 1921. After mod
the United States if we don’t continue to in- ifying the official rules of the test, Air Service
vest in research and development and field pilots sank three captured German vessels, in
the weapon systems resulting from these ef cluding the “unsinkable” battleship Ostfries
forts. Counterarguments come from those land. Two years later, the Air Service success-
who believe that, although we eventually will fully repeated the tests by sinking two
have to modernize, our technological lead is obsolete American battleships. Despite these
IT AIN’T NEW 11
achievements, the tests failed to gain any sig
nificant funding from Congress.
In addition to demonstrating the air-
plane’s potential military capabilities, early
airpower advocates began to develop air-
power theory, doctrine, and tactics. The Air
Corps Tactical School at Maxwell Air Force
Base, Alabama, is generally credited with con
sidering the early airpower theories espoused
by Mitchell, Gen Hugh Trenchard, and per-
haps Gen Giulio Douhet—and with establish
ing the first airpower doctrine developed in
the United States.18 This doctrine advocated
precision, high-altitude, daylight strategic
bombardment against the enemy’s military-
An F-117A Nighthawk drops a laser-guided bomb.
industrial complex. However, its publication
did not convince skeptics in Congress—or tions, and tactics. Already, it is clear that we
the Army and Navy—of the usefulness of air- need to make our intelligence, surveillance,
power. Only the success of actual strategic- and reconnaissance capabilities more respon
bombardment missions and support to the
sive and accurate in order to support the effi
ground troops during World War II con
cient targeting of precision-guided weapons.
vinced naysayers of the value of military mis
Other questions remain concerning their
sions for the airplane—and of the need for
role, compared to that of traditional weapon
an independent Air Force.
systems, and the impact they will have on
Surprisingly, remnants of the debate about
other military concepts, such as maneuver.
the role of airpower and its ability to play a
Each of the services must examine the part
decisive role in conflict continue in Congress
of their war-fighting doctrine that addresses
and the Pentagon today, despite the critically
precision-guided weapons and develop the
important airpower demonstrations in both
best plan for employing precision capability.
Desert Storm and Allied Force. The airplane
They need to answer questions about when to
now performs an extensive array of missions
use these weapons and against what types of
for all of the services, and I would not want to
targets. They should be able to logically an
fight an adversary without the best aircraft
swer critics who claim that striking a $50,000
America can produce.
target with a million-dollar missile is unjusti
fied, whether it is based on reducing risk to
Precision-Guided Weapons: Living Up to Their
our service members, the unique importance
Promise
of the target, or some other factor. That
Today, I see many similarities between the air- done, the Pentagon must educate American
plane’s struggle for acceptance and the way leaders and the general public about these
the armed forces are integrating precision- new weapons. Just as education about the air-
guided munitions (PGM) into the force plane many years ago led to building the
structure. The effort to achieve more accu world’s greatest air force, so does the nation
rate weapons began in World War I and ap need to learn the capabilities and limitations
proached modern capabilities with PGMs to- of precision-guided weapons in order to un
ward the end of the Vietnam War. However, derstand why they represent a wise invest
not until Desert Storm did the American pub ment for the future.19
lic get a close-up view of the capability of We need educational efforts not only to
PGMs. Increased emphasis on precision will justify resources but also to effectively employ
drive changes in military doctrine, opera- PGMs against critical targets. For example,
12 AEROSPACE POWER JOURNAL FALL 2000
during Desert Storm, coalition political and vices work together. In addition, because
military leaders hesitated to allow the bomb America will continue to lead and participate
ing of high-value targets located in or near in coalitions, the services must prepare mili
population centers. However, after receiving tary leaders of tomorrow to operate comfort-
briefings detailing the accuracy of PGMs,
ably in a multinational environment. They must
these leaders felt more comfortable using
understand the different national interests
them against targets in cities.20 As previously
that may drive their counterparts and must
mentioned, General Clark gave the same
recognize allied military capabilities in order
types of briefings during Allied Force in order
to get the most out of their contributions. Fi
to gain NATO consensus to bomb certain tar-
nally, the United States cannot afford to hap
gets in highly populated areas.
hazardly integrate new technology into its force
structure. We must look ahead in order to un
Conclusion
derstand the potential implications of tech
nology and to ensure that theory, doctrine,
My study of history tells me that the chal
and strategy do not fall behind. One of the
lenges facing the military today—and into the
best ways for future military leaders to pre-
future—are not new. The US military must
continue to develop leaders who understand pare is to study military history. It might sur
jointness in order to fight as a joint force. This prise them to discover how much yesteryear
is important because the nation needs the has in common with today. In other words—
strength created when all of the armed ser- it ain’t new. ■
Notes
1. Paul C. Clark Jr. and Edward H. Moseley, “Veracruz, and the Great Air Power Debate,” International Security 24, no. 4
1847—A Grand Design,” Joint Force Quarterly, Winter 1995–1996, (Spring 2000): 34.
104. 12. Dana Priest, “The Battle inside Headquarters,” Washing-
2. K. Jack Bauer, Surfboats and Horse Marines: U.S. Naval Oper ton Post, 21 September 1999.
ations in the Mexican War, 1846–48 (Annapolis: US Naval Institute, 13. Ibid.
1969), 77–78.
14. Linda D. Kozaryn, “Europe Salutes Allied Force Com
3. Clark and Moseley, 108.
mander,” American Forces Press Service, 4 May 2000; on-line, In
4. Ibid., 110.
5. US Department of Defense, Conduct of the Persian Gulf Con ternet, 2000, available from http://www.defenselink.mil/news/
flict: Final Report to the Congress (Washington, D.C.: Government May2000/n05042000_20005043.html.
Printing Office, April 1992), 293. 15. Stephen C. Danckert, “The Siege of Yorktown: Coalition
6. P. Mason Carpenter, “Joint Operations in the Gulf War: An Force,” Military Review 73, no. 1 (January 1993): 16.
Allison Analysis” (thesis, School of Advanced Airpower Studies, 16. Ibid., 20.
Maxwell AFB, Ala., June 1994), 18–19; on-line, Internet, 2000, 17. US Department of Defense, Kosovo/Operations Allied Force
available from http://www.au.af.mil/au/saas/studrsch/carpente. After-Action Report: Report to Congress (Washington, D.C.: Govern
doc. ment Printing Office, 31 January 2000), 25.
7. Ibid. 18. Dr. James A. Mowbray, “Air Force Doctrine Problems:
8. J. R. Jones, Marlborough (Cambridge: Cambridge Univer
1926–Present,” Airpower Journal 9, no. 4 (Winter 1995): 3.
sity Press, 1993), 138.
19. Richard P. Hallion, “Precision Weapons, Power Projection,
9. Winston S. Churchill, Marlborough: His Life and Times (New
York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1968), 795. and the Revolution in Military Affairs,” USAF Air Armament Sum
10. Wesley K. Clark, “The United States and NATO: The Way mit, Eglin AFB, Fla., 26 May 1999; on-line, Internet, 2000, avail-
Ahead,” Parameters 29, no. 4 (Winter 1999–2000): 7. able from http://www.airforcehistory.hq.af.mil/Hallionpapers/
11. Daniel L. Byman and Matthew C. Waxman, “Kosovo Re- precisionweaponspower.htm.
considered: NATO’s Bombs and Belgrade’s Strategy—Kosovo 20. Ibid.