Table Of ContentEnvironmEntal ChEmistry P
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Water is our natural heritage, our miracle of life. However, our increasingly
technological society has become indifferent to water. Far from being
pure, modern drinking water around the world contains many undesirable
chemical and bacterial contaminants. The existing techniques employed
for the disinfection of water are either energy-intensive or have by-products
that are harmful to human health. Drinking Water Disinfection Techniques
reviews these processes and explores novel technologies for water
disinfection synergistic with existing techniques.
The book covers a wide audience and gives a comprehensive review of
various physical, chemical, and hybrid techniques commonly used for the
disinfection of water as well as newer emerging technologies in terms of
their mode of action, scale of operation, efficacy, merits, and demerits. It
broadly addresses the issues related to water disinfection in three sections:
• Disinfection techniques—chemical, physical, and hybrid
(combination)—and their likely scale of operation efficacy
• Disinfection by-product as a function of water source and the
type of treatment
• Emerging and novel techniques, including new work on cavitation,
an economical, energy-efficient, and simple alternative to the
conventional methods of disinfection
Drinking Water Disinfection Techniques effectively combines the chemical,
physical, biological, and engineering principles of water disinfection in
one text. Discussing both conventional and novel techniques used for
disinfection and the economics involved, the book gives a comprehensive
review of various physical, chemical, and hybrid techniques used for
disinfection to create potable water.
K13584
ISBN: 978-1-4398-7740-1
90000
Aniruddha Bhalchandra Pandit
9 781439 877401
and Jyoti Kishen Kumar
K13584_Cover_mech.indd 1 11/7/12 10:32 AM
D W
rinking ater
D
isinfection
t
echniques
Aniruddha Bhalchandra Pandit
and Jyoti Kishen Kumar
Boca Raton London New York
CRC Press is an imprint of the
Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business
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© 2013 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
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Version Date: 20121003
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To my father
Professor Bhalchandra R. Pandit (alias Nana)
Aniruddha Bhalchandra Pandit (alias Vishwesh)
To my beloved parents
Smt. Lakshmi and Shri. P.A. Gopalkrishnan (Amma and Appa)
Jyoti Kishen Kumar
Contents
Foreword ..............................................................................................................xiii
Preface .....................................................................................................................xv
Acknowledgments .............................................................................................xvii
1. Introduction .....................................................................................................1
1.1 Current Scenario ...................................................................................1
1.2 The Aquatic Environment ...................................................................2
1.3 Health Aspects ......................................................................................3
1.4 History of Disinfection .........................................................................5
1.5 General Aspects of Disinfection .........................................................7
1.6 Water Disinfection Methods................................................................9
1.7 Assessment of Disinfection ...............................................................10
1.8 Quantitative Measurement of Bacterial Growth ............................13
1.9 History of Water Regulations ............................................................17
1.10 Microbiological Standards .................................................................18
Questions ........................................................................................................19
References .......................................................................................................19
2. Chemical Disinfection .................................................................................21
2.1 Introduction .........................................................................................21
2.2 Theory of Chemical Disinfection ......................................................21
2.3 Chlorination .........................................................................................23
2.3.1 Breakpoint Chlorination .......................................................24
2.3.2 How Does Chlorine Kill Microorganisms? ........................25
2.3.3 Factors Affecting Chlorine Disinfection ............................26
2.3.3.1 Concentration and Contact Time .........................27
2.3.4 Methods of Chlorine Treatment ..........................................27
2.3.4.1 Sodium Hypochlorite (Bleach) .............................27
2.3.4.2 Calcium Hypochlorite (Bleaching Powder
or Chlorinated Lime) .............................................27
2.3.4.3 Chloramines ............................................................28
2.3.4.4 Chlorine Dioxide ....................................................29
2.4 Other Chemical Methods ...................................................................33
2.4.1 Iodine .......................................................................................33
2.4.2 Silver ........................................................................................36
2.4.3 Potassium Permanganate .....................................................38
2.4.4 Hydrogen Peroxide ................................................................39
2.4.4.1 Production and Application .................................39
2.4.5 Bromine ...................................................................................40
2.4.6 Ferrate ......................................................................................41
vii
viii Contents
2.4.7 Water Disinfection by Zero-Valent Iron Nanoparticles ...42
2.5 Chemical Disinfection Treatments Requiring Electricity .............44
2.5.1 Ozone .......................................................................................44
2.6 Coagulation/Flocculation Agents as Pretreatment .......................45
2.7 Disinfection By-Products (DBPs) ......................................................49
2.7.1 Factors Affecting DBP Production ......................................50
2.7.2 Adverse Health Effects of DBPs in Drinking Water .........51
2.7.3 Regulation of DBPs in Drinking Water ..............................52
2.7.4 Examples from Literature .....................................................53
2.7.5 Emerging Contaminants in Disinfection By-Products .....53
2.7.6 Controlling Disinfection By-Products ................................55
2.8 Conclusion ............................................................................................57
Questions ........................................................................................................58
References .......................................................................................................59
3. Physical Disinfection ...................................................................................71
3.1 Introduction .........................................................................................71
3.2 Ultraviolet Radiation ..........................................................................72
3.2.1 Generation of UV ...................................................................72
3.2.2 Mechanism of Bacterial Inactivation ..................................74
3.2.3 Disinfection Efficacy ..............................................................76
3.2.3.1 Bacteria and Virus Inactivation ............................76
3.2.3.2 Protozoa Inactivation .............................................76
3.2.4 Disinfection By-Products of UV Radiation ........................78
3.3 Solar Disinfection ................................................................................80
3.3.1 Mechanisms of Solar Disinfection ......................................80
3.3.2 Factors Affecting Efficacy of Solar Disinfection................82
3.3.3 Inactivation of Microorganisms by Solar Radiation .........83
3.4 Heat Treatment ....................................................................................87
3.5 Filtration Methods ..............................................................................88
3.5.1 Reverse Osmosis ....................................................................88
3.5.2 Microfilters ..............................................................................89
3.5.3 Slow Sand Filter (SSF) ............................................................89
3.5.4 Activated Charcoal Filter ......................................................91
3.6 Distillation ............................................................................................93
3.7 Electrochemical Oxidation ................................................................95
3.8 Water Disinfection by Microwave Heating .....................................96
3.9 Conclusion ............................................................................................97
Questions ........................................................................................................98
References .......................................................................................................99
4. Hybrid Techniques .....................................................................................107
4.1 Introduction .......................................................................................107
4.1.1 What Is the Basis of a Hybrid Method? ............................107
4.1.2 Inactivation Mechanism .....................................................108
