Table Of ContentStuttgart 2012
P M
ARASKEVI ARTZAVOU
Dream, Narrative, and
the Construction of Hope
in the ‘Healing Miracles’ of Epidauros
DREAM, NARRATIVE, AND THE CONSTRUCTION OF HOPE
IN THE ‘HEALING MIRACLES’ OF EPIDAUROS
Paraskevi Martzavou
1 SLEEPING IN EPIDAUROS
In antiquity the ill could turn to the divine for healing by visiting the shrines of
healing gods, notably that of Asklepios. The healing procedure involved incuba-
tion: a patient would spend a night within the sacred premises in order to receive a
divine visitation in the form of a dream. This practice is described in a striking
way by Aristophanes in his play Ploutos; Karion, the servant, gives an account of
the bringing of the blind Ploutos to the sanctuary of Asklepios, probably in
Piraeus, in order for Ploutos to be cured from his blindness by the god.1 Karion
describes the healing procedure as follows: After the completion of preliminary
rites, the patients are put to sleep in a special place and the priests lie in the same
location. After a while, Asklepios enters with a number of assistants including two
snakes. With the help of his assistants, the god applies ointments to the patients
and cures them. Ploutos has his sight restored – and hence follows a vivid expres-
sion of joy by Karion and the other characters in the play.
The cure described in the narrative of Aristophanes takes place on the prem-
ises of the Asklepios shrine in Attica. Several Asklepieia have been found scat-
tered around the Greek world. A famous one of these shrines was located in Epi-
dauros, and from it we have a series of inscriptions depicting instances of mi-
raculous healing (iamata). These were drawn up at the end of the fourth century
BCE by one or more compilers, probably by members of the priestly personnel.2
The iamata confirm the testimony of Aristophanes concerning the role of incu-
bations and sleeping or dreaming experience in the healing procedure, which also
included purifying baths and sacrifices and took place in sanctuaries.3 Four stelae
bearing such texts survive today. Pausanias, the traveller of the second century
CE, mentions them and he specifies that, in his day, six plaques were exposed, but
1 Aristophanes, Ploutos 649–763; see Edelstein and Edelstein 1945, T421.
2 Main editions: IG IV2.1.121–124; Herzog 1931 (text with German translation and commenta-
ry); Edelstein and Edelstein 1945, 221–237 T234 (text and English translation); LiDonnici
1995 (text with English translation and commentary); Prêtre and Charlier 2009 (text, French
translation, detailed philological and medical commentary); further bibliography in Chaniotis
1988, 19; LiDonnici 1995; Prêtre and Charlier 2009. On language and style: Nehrbass 1935.
On the relation between the iamata and local historiography: Chaniotis 1988, 19–23 T2. On
their compilation by priests: Sineux 2007.
3 Edelstein and Edelstein 1945, 145–158.
178 Paraskevi Martzavou
in earlier times there were probably more.4 Apart from the iamata, miraculous
healings are described in individual dedications to Asklepios, but we are not deal-
ing with this documentation here.5
The iamata inscriptions detail the relationship between the god Asklepios and
several other characters, namely patients. As texts, they prove to be sophisticated
literary compositions, and ultimately they seem to be relevant to the relationship
of the drafter to the audience consisting of readers, pilgrims, and auditors. In that,
they are similar to more sophisticated genres of literary creation, notably to epic
and tragic poetry. These texts with extremely detailed descriptions (ἐνάργεια) and
dramatic elements (περιπέτεια) – both features of literary creation – lead the
audience to metaphorical and literal catharsis through ‘pity and fear’, to refer to
Aristotle’s definition of tragedy.6 The final aim of these texts is to arouse the emo-
tions of hope and confidence in members of the audience, who would have been
people seeking a cure. The healing procedure can thus be described as an emo-
tional path: after the suffering caused by illness and the agonising wait for well-
ness, the arrival of a successful cure produces emotions of relief and hope. In this
paper, I aim to identify and explain emotions sought through narrative techniques
in the context of the Asklepion. My ultimate goal is to demonstrate the value of
the ‘miracle inscriptions’ as a source for the socio-cultural construction of emo-
tions in ancient Greece and for the history of emotions in general.
2 FROM DREAMS TO NARRATIVE AND EMOTIONS
The importance of dreams is a key parameter in the construction of the narrative
of these healing inscriptions. The experience of a dream was the main means of
diagnosis and healing in the sanctuaries of Asklepios, as we can also judge from
other sources.7 However, as has been already highlighted, the accounts of dreams
are not simply dreams per se, but the representation of the dream experience as
narrative.8 These texts should be considered as compositions, not as direct ac-
counts of dreams.
4 Pausanias 2.36.1.
5 For individual accounts of healings see Girone 1998, 5, who does not treat the iamata
inscriptions.
6 On the concept of catharsis as a metaphor taken from the medical world in order to under-
stand the function of tragedy, see Sifakis 2001, 72–113. On enargeia see pp. 107–109 in this
volume.
7 The recording of healing stories, in an institutionalised way, is a feature characteristic of other
sanctuaries of Asklepios, for example the sanctuary of Asklepios in Lebena in Crete (I.Cret.
I.xvii.8–12) and the sanctuary of Aesculapius in the Tiber island at Rome (IGUR 148; cf.
Renberg 2006/2007, esp. 93–95 and 137–139); see Rhodes and Osborne 2003, 539. For
Epidauros see the record of miraculous healing in IG IV2.1.126. Even though this inscription
comes from a much later period (117 CE), this text attests a combination of a diagnostic and
healing procedure based equally on dreams and on advice concerning modification of
behaviour (e.g. practicing moderate exercise).
8 Stewart 1997, 877–894.
Dream, Narrative, and the Construction of Hope in the ‘Healing Miracles’ of Epidauros 179
The approximately seventy stories of Epidauros, distributed across four stelae,
are unevenly preserved. Two stelae (A and B; see Appendix, pp. 196–203) hold
20 and 23 complete narratives respectively, whereas the stories recorded in two
further stelae (C and D) survive only incompletely (23 and 4 entries respectively).
In what follows, I shall focus on stelae A and B, only occasionally using the
material from stelae C and D. The text, as a compilation of an important number
of healing stories, is an illustration of the powers of the god. In that sense, it is
conceptually very close to the genre of aretalogy, the praise of the power (arete)
of a god (cf. pp. 267–290 in this volume), as it records the power of the god
manifested in his wonder-working. In that sense also, the healing stories are quite
closely related to religious acclamations.9 At the same time, the stelae that survive
today can be broadly perceived as religious dedications – that is, as religious
gestures in the context of communication between the divine and the human
sphere, as well as between humans themselves.10
However, even while tackling the complex semantic character of the iamata,
my specific goal in this chapter is not to define these texts by attributing them to a
particular genre, but to evaluate them as a source for the study of emotions in
ancient Greece. So rather than gradually moving towards a precise definition, I
shall pay attention to the content of the inscriptions, the types of tales, the style of
the presentation (language, rhetorical elements), the modes of linguistic expres-
sion and the tropes in use, the arrangement of the individual stories, the general
narrative, and the organisational principles in each individual stele and in the en-
semble of stories, inasmuch as these elements are relevant for the central theme of
the present volume, namely emotions. I shall place special emphasis on the narra-
tive techniques and their role in the construction of emotions.
It is important to focus on language, especially language that describes or al-
ludes to emotions. I aim to understand how language works in the specific setting
of a healing sanctuary in the flow of the narrative. Furthermore, I shall try to
identify the object towards which the narrative leads, the function of these tales as
they are presented, and the degree of their success in fulfilling their role. And of
course, special attention must be paid to these texts as material objects, as monu-
mentally presented written records of miracles, to which aspect I shall now turn.
3 CONTEXTUALISING THE EPIDAURIAN TEXTS
The four stelai were probably exposed in front of the eastern wall of a building
designated as the abaton,11 next to a well and an incribed text of political impor-
9 On religious acclamations see Chaniotis 2009a; on acclamations, generally, see pp. 295–312
in this volume.
10 Rüpke 2009, 31–41.
11 See internal evidence (stories A3, A4, B16) and also archaeological evidence, i.e. the
discovery of grooved stele-bases within the abaton building itself, which may indicate that
the stelai were displayed there; LiDonnici 1995, 18 and note 18; Kolde 2003, 1. LiDonnici
mentions as problematic the interpretation of these stele-bases as the actual bases of the
180 Paraskevi Martzavou
tance: a cult regulation and a song of praise to Asklepios composed by a certain
Isyllos (early third century BCE).12 The positioning of the stelai is relevant to their
emotional impact. The name abaton literally means ‘not to be trodden’, but it is
obvious from the narrative that into this building the people were sent to sleep in
order to dream about their cure.13 However, even if not literally ‘inaccessible’,
this space was probably restricted to those practicing incubation in the sanctuary
in need of a cure or advice.14 The use of the word abaton to indicate the place of
actual incubation is significant; it belongs to a religious perception of space and it
is highly suggestive. We can imagine the emotions of someone, in need of a cure,
when actually entering a place defined as abaton: fear of transgressing a limit,
awe because of the presupposed sacred character of the space, anticipation and
hope for a cure and, in general, emotional tension. On the other hand, the hymn to
Asklepios by Isyllos, with its clearly civic character and aristocratic resonance,
represents the authority under which the miraculous activity took place in the
abaton and in general in the precinct of the sanctuary of Asklepios in Epidauros.15
It is plausible to suggest that both texts contributed to the construction of civic
pride for the Epidaurians. In what follows, I shall try to explore the construction
of these and other emotions in relation to techniques of narrative and especially to
dream narrative. I shall also look at other parameters that shaped the emotions of
people who either visited the sanctuary of Asklepios in Epidauros, or who had
exposure to the Epidaurian texts. For the latter, exposure to the texts could be
either direct or by word of mouth.
4 CAUSES OF SUFFERING AND CURES
What is striking throughout the tales is the non-specialisation of the healing and
comforting offered by the sanctuary. The variety of causes of suffering, and the
diversity of problems considered to be appropriate to bring to Asklepios, is im-
pressive by the standards of modern medicine.16 For instance, suffering because of
lice (Appendix, B8) is considered in the text right after the case of a man with a
festering sore inside his belly (Appendix, B7). No actual distinction between
iamata, since there is only room for four bases in this area and Pausanias mentions six stelai.
But the exposure of four stelai in the abaton does not exclude the exposure of other stelai
elsewhere in the sanctuary. For the abaton in Epidauros see also Girone 1998, 41.
12 Kolde 2003, 1; Kolde throughout her book analyses the meaning of the exposure of a text
with high political significance next to the iamata inscriptions.
13 See e.g. Appendix, A2 line 21 and A11.
14 LiDonnicci 1995, 19.
15 Kolde 2003, 257–301.
16 See Prêtre and Charlier 2009, nos. 1–4, where the authors attempt a diagnostic approach to
these texts, an original breakthrough to the medical reality of the ancient world.
Dream, Narrative, and the Construction of Hope in the ‘Healing Miracles’ of Epidauros 181
physical and mental cause of suffering is made.17 The importance of psychologi-
cal suffering as a cause of psychosomatic illnesses is apparent throughout these
texts. Also, considerable variety can be detected in the sources of the tales. Picto-
rial and textual dedications must have been an important source from which the
anonymous compiler has drawn material for his narrative. Sometimes a combina-
tion of oral tradition along with simple anatomical dedications (pictorial, textual,
or a combination of both) must have been the source of the story put into narrative
in the ‘miracle inscriptions’.18 An example is the tale that opens the narrative, the
first tale of stele A (Appendix, A1):
Kleo was pregnant for five years. After the fifth year of pregnancy, she came as a suppliant to
the god and slept in the abaton. As soon as she had left it and was outside the sacred area, she
gave birth to a son who, as soon as he was born, washed himself at the fountain and walked
about with his mother. After this success, she inscribed upon an offering: ‘the wonder is not
the size of the plaque, but the act of the god; Kleo bore a burden in her stomach for five years,
until she slept here, and he made her well.’
It seems obvious that the source of this tale lies in an inscribed dedication, a tablet
of some sort, that a woman named Kleo had put up as a dedication in the sanctu-
ary of Asklepios as a sign of gratitude; there would probably also have been an
oral story attached to this dedication which the drafter and compiler of the text
would have taken into account. Simple inscribed dedications must have been as-
sociated, through the passing of time, with legends that circulated by word of
mouth. This must have been the case, for instance, with another story (Appendix,
A4) in which we have an allusion to an object that must have been placed as a
dedication in the sanctuary and which probably caused much curiosity and discus-
sion. In this story, a woman named Ambrosia from Athens, blind in one eye, came
as a suppliant to the god. The god healed her, but because she was doubtful, he
ordered her to dedicate a silver pig in the sanctuary ‘as a memorial of her igno-
rance’.
Thus it seems that, apart from the pictorial and inscribed dedications, the
drafter(s) of the compilation must have drawn on stories that circulated on the
premises of the sanctuary by word of mouth as rumours or ‘sanctuary legends’ (to
coin a term inspired by the concept of ‘urban legends’). For example, one of the
first tales (Appendix, A3) gives neither a name to the protagonist, nor a descrip-
tion of the dedication he made; similarly, the healing story of a mute boy (Appen-
dix, A5) provides neither a name nor an ethnic identity. As in the case of Kleo, an
important source for these tales must lie in the various ‘anatomical’ dedications
that were deposited as dedications in the sanctuaries of Asklepios, either inscribed
17 The same mixture of mental and bodily diseases as the cause of suffering is apparent
throughout the propitiatory inscriptions and dedications of Lydia and Phrygia: see Chaniotis
1995, 323–337.
18 The anatomical votives represent body parts which are healed or expected to be healed by a
deity; see Forsèn 1996. On the various sources upon which the compilers of the iamata could
draw see Herzog 1931, 52–54 and 56; Chaniotis 1988, 21.
182 Paraskevi Martzavou
or un-inscribed.19 A number of stories must have been circulating by word of
mouth not only on the premises of the sanctuary but also in the cities and villages
that were in contact with the sanctuary, once the pilgrims had returned to their
place of origin. The presence and the importance of audience in the case of the
performance of miracles is indeed crucial. The example given above in Aristo-
phanes’ Ploutos (p. 177) is telling. An inscription from Rome explicitly indicates
that the healed person had to thank the god in public.20
However, the major source of the tales seems to be the dreaming experience
that the people visiting the sanctuary sought in order to find a cure for their physi-
cal or mental illnesses, or a solution to a problem. There must have been a record
in the sanctuary of the dreaming narratives based on the dream experiences of the
visitors. Narrative based on dream experience appears to be the basic source of
‘miracle tales’: the majority of healing stories are based on dreams, and we can
see that 30 out of 46 acts of healing involve dreams.21 The framework for describ-
ing the dreams follows the ‘epiphany convention’. According to this framework,
the dream consists of the appearance to the dreamer of an authoritative personage
who may be either divine or a representative of a god; this figure then conveys
instruction or information.22
5 DREAMS, NARRATIVE, AND THE CONSTRUCTION OF ANXIETY AND
HOPE
The miracle inscriptions, without being exclusively dream records, are fully
packed with dream narratives. At first sight, the narratives do not seem to be ar-
ranged according to an order. However, a narrative is the result of an intention and
usually the product of editing. It does not deliver just pure information, but it can
represent or include the manipulation of that information for the fulfilment of
specific goals. When reading through the miraculous stories, we should ask our-
selves not only what the story says but also why the drafter wants us to know it
and in what ways he chooses to inform us. Through the narrative of these texts, I
will attempt to detect some of the intentions of the drafters of the compilation and
the ways they used to fulfil their intentions, and I will focus on the construction of
19 Petsalis-Diomidis 2007, 214–217.
20 See IGUR I 148 (inscription from the sanctuary of Asklepios on the insula Tiberina in Rome).
It is obvious that the worshipper after his rescue was expected to come to the sanctuary and
express in public his gratitude to the god. See Girone 1998, 157f.; Chaniotis 2009b, 120.
21 Rhodes and Osborne 2003, 541.
22 Harris 2009, 4, 52–57, 278. Harris thinks that this kind of dream occurs very seldom in our
experience and that this pattern is merely a narrative convention that eventually disappears.
However, there are modern attestations of this phenomenon. ‘Epiphany dreams’ occur for
instance in a collection of cures published by the monastery of Archangelos in Thasos (Τὸ
προσκύνηµα τοῦ Ἀρχαγγέλου Μιχαὴλ τῆς Θάσου, Thasos 2008, nos. 15, 19, and 23) and in
notebooks from the village of Koronos in Naxos: see Stewart 2012.
Dream, Narrative, and the Construction of Hope in the ‘Healing Miracles’ of Epidauros 183
two basic emotions: anxiety and hope. I will then evaluate these emotions as they
were operating in the context of the healing procedure.
It is in fact of great interest that in the opening tale (Appendix, A1), the story
of Kleo cited above (p. 181), the dreaming experience does not seem central.
Despite the fact that the majority of the tales involve a dream narrative based on
dreaming experience, this first story does not involve such narrative. We do know
that Kleo slept in the abaton, but we know neither whether she had a coherent
dream nor the content of any dream. In view of the importance of the dreaming
experience in the ‘miracle inscriptions’ in general, the fact that this story inaugu-
rates the series becomes significant; this initial lack of clarity about a coherent
dreaming experience would be confusing especially for the reader in need of a
cure who came to a sanctuary where the main means of diagnosis and cure was
the practice of incubation and the experience of a dream. What should the reader
who came to sleep in order to dream expect? This uncertainty concerning the
prospect of a dream would be a source of worry and anxiety – we might wonder if
this was the very effect sought by the drafter of the compilation.23
More anxiety might be experienced through ignorance of the form to be taken
by the divine in a possible encounter, in or outside a dream. In the narrative of the
first tale, the word used to denote the divine is τὸν θεόν (line 4), ‘the god’ – but
which god? We must bear in mind that the inscribed text begins with a heading
which reads: ‘God, Good Fortune; Healings by Apollo and by Asklepios’. Which
one of the two divine personae will come to the aid of the human in need? And in
what form? The anxiety that is constructed though uncertainty concerning the
prospect of a dream is made more sophisticated through the vagueness of the form
of the encounter with the divine. In line 8, where we have the citation of the origi-
nal inscription on the plaque dedicated by the woman, the term used is τὸ θεῖον,
‘the divine’; this is a rather impersonal way to indicate the divinity, without gen-
der or form (human or animal).24 An uncertain encounter with an indefinite ‘di-
vine’ could be a source of serious anxiety for a reader in need of a cure. Although
the indefinite character already exists in the text of the dedication that must have
inspired the narrative in which it is quoted, we have to bear in mind that the nar-
rative was the product of composition and editing.25 We are dealing here with an
effort of editing from the drafter of the compilation in order to manipulate the
emotions of the reader.
However, during the course of the second story (Appendix, A2) things
change; the vagueness concerning the nature of the dream experience and the
form that the encounter with the divine might take disappears:
A three-year pregnancy. Ithmonika of Pallene came to the sanctuary to have children. Sleep-
ing here she saw a vision. It seemed that she asked the god if she could conceive a daughter,
23 See the analogies with the collection of miracles of the monastery of Archangelos in Thasos
(note 22).
24 The translation of the term θεῖον can vary according to the context. For instance Girone 1998,
II 2, translates the term θεῖον, used in the hymn to Asklepios by Isyllos, as ‘ l’evento divino’.
25 See Chaniotis 1988, 20 and note 41.
184 Paraskevi Martzavou
and Asklepios answered that she could and that if she asked anything else that he would do
that as well, but she answered that she didn’t need anything more. She became pregnant and
bore the child in her stomach for three years, until she came again to the god as a suppliant,
concerning the birth. Sleeping here, she saw a vision. The god appeared, asking whether eve-
rything she had asked had not happened and she was pregnant. She had not said anything
about the birth, and he had asked her to say whether there was anything more she needed and
he would do it. But since now she had come to him as a suppliant for this, he said he would
do it for her. Right after this, she rushed out of the abaton, and as soon as she was outside the
sacred area, gave birth to a daughter.
In the very first lines of the tale the ‘god’ is introduced to the reader; he is imme-
diately identified as Asklepios. In contrast with the tale A1, not only do we have
the specific name of the god who is coming to the aid of the human, but we are
also provided with the extremely coherent dream experience of a woman in need
of help; we have a narrative based on a first dream in a first phase (before the pre-
gnancy) and on a second dream in a second phase (before the birth). The second
dream is supposed to follow the first after a three-year gap. The dialogue between
the human and the god is referred to in indirect speech; this dialogue is so cohe-
rent that it can be continued even after a gap of three years and in that way the two
dream narratives of A2 are connected to each other. Thus, we can read the petition
of a woman to Asklepios; and then we read the continuation of that petition which
aims to correct the woman’s incomplete first petition (i.e. asking initially to con-
ceive a daughter, but not actually to give birth to the child). In this case, the divi-
nity is clearly indicated by the anonymous narrator as the male god Asklepios.
From the indefinite indication of the identity of the divine in the first tale, we
progress to a tale which unambiguously defines the divinity: it is Asklepios, the
god who dwells in the sanctuary of Epidauros. The second story (Appendix, A2)
is thematically related to the first one (A1) – in both cases the theme is an
extended pregnancy – and this gives unity to these two stories that function as a
basis for the construction of the personality of the divine, even though the god is
openly presented only in the second story. These two initial tales may differ in
regard to their function in the overall narrative, but thanks to their thematic con-
nection they work very well in a complementary way. In the dream narratives of
stele A, the god appears several times.26 Given the fact that the dream is a highly
personal experience, it is noteworthy that all of these people dreamed of Askle-
pios. In fact, it would be more accurate to say that they dreamed of someone they
thought was Asklepios – at least that is what the compiler wanted the reader to
believe.
The construction of the personality of the god is carefully accomplished
through the tales of the first stele. The nine tales that actually include an encounter
with the divinity describe the divinity as a mature male. An instructive example is
the very well constructed dialogue of A2 which includes the petition for a pre-
gnancy by the woman, followed by questions by the god who, in a manner of a
thoughtful merchant taking an order, tries to specify the character of the petition.
The dialogue continues three years later, when the pregnancy had been achieved
26 Appendix, A2, A3, A4, A8, A9, A12, A13, A18, A19.
Dream, Narrative, and the Construction of Hope in the ‘Healing Miracles’ of Epidauros 185
but – alas – not the labour. The god, in a manner of a meticulous entrepreneur,
recalls the wording of the petition; in a highly rational way with a dose of humour,
he reassures her that he will take notice of her new petition and will fulfil it. The
god in this case is presented like a teaser with a deadpan sense of humour. The
fact that the god is presented like an individual with absolutely good intentions
makes it easier for the reader to engage emotionally with the constructed image of
‘the god’ who in fact has a name – Asklepios – rather than with an abstract and
general idea of the divine. The communication with the divine is analogous to the
communication between humans.
It is easier to know what emotion to experience when the divinity is presented
as a benevolent man who, like a pedantic teacher, is trying through teasing to
‘teach a lesson’ to his pupils so that they are more accurate next time when they
hand in their essay (or petition, in this case).27 This is highly reassuring for the
readers who are puzzled by their own personal problems of physical or mental
health and by their suffering in general; and therefore it assuages their frustration.
Concerning the individual stories of the narrative, it is remarkable that the
story concerning the suspicious man (Appendix, A8) brings to mind the well-
known story of ‘doubting Thomas’ in the New Testament.28 This happens because
these two stories have a common theme, namely the doubts of a human concern-
ing the powers of the divinity (healing in the case of Asklepios, resurrection in the
case of Jesus Christ). They also have an analogous function in the general narra-
tive, as they both illustrate a moral and religious lesson: the doubting individual is
relieved of his doubts but, as a penalty, he is given the name ‘the Unbeliever’, so
that his name becomes associated with doubt in approaching the divine. This act
of naming establishes a permanent blame, setting the individual up as an example
of the proverbial ‘doubter’. The existence of patterns in common with other re-
ligious contexts, not always related to dreams, requires an explanation. As we
have stressed above, we are not dealing here with the raw material of the dream-
ing experience but with the narrative that has the dreaming experience as its
source. This narrative is not the direct product of the individual who experienced
the dream, but it is the processed product of a community of priests and their
helpers, and of other people who narrated their experiences as dreamers to the
religious officials of Epidauros. It is understandable then that in the miracle in-
scriptions we find patterns of narrative that also occur elsewhere.29
It is worth emphasising that this type of story that has a punitive theme works
towards the construction of the fear inspired by the divine – the fear of punish-
ment – either because one has been doubtful or because one has forgotten to pay
27 In this regard, Asklepios, as presented in this story, is similar to Asklepios as the latter is
constructed through the narrative of Aelius Aristides’ Sacred Tales; that is, as a teacher of
rhetoric who orders Aristides to start again to write and speak, who presents him to Plato and
Sophocles, and who writes even his words for him; see Petsalis-Diomidis 2007, 211.
28 See Herzog 1931, 95, 99, 125 for other narratives (pagan or Christian) concerning doubt or
disbelief.
29 Stewart 1997, 877–894.
