DOUBLE-MOBILIZATION: TRANSNATIONAL ADVOCACY NETWORKS FOR CHINA'S ...

449 Pages·2005·3.31 MB·English

ABSTRACT

Title of dissertation: DOUBLE-MOBILIZATION: TRANSNATIONAL
ADVOCACY NETWORKS FOR CHINA’S
ENVIRONMENT AND PUBLIC HEALTH

Fengshi Wu, Doctor of Philosophy, 2005

Dissertation directed by: Professor Ken Conca
Department of Government and Politics

This dissertation investigates the nature of transnational advocacy networks
and the impact of domestic structures on the development and political relations of
such networks. Drawing upon the theoretical frameworks built by Margaret Keck,
Katherine Sikkink and Sanjeev Khagram, I, though, challenge the conceptual bias
embedded in this body of literature emphasizing contentious political relations
between advocacy actors and targeted governments. I use the method of in-depth
comparative case studies, and focus on two transnational advocacy networks in nature
conservation and HIV/AIDS prevention in China to illustrate my three-fold argument:
First, it is necessary to relax the theoretical bias in existing transnational advocacy
literature, and recognize that the triangular relationship among the state, local society
and international NSAs varies both over time and across issue areas. The two cases
studied reveals a what I call the “double-mobilization” character of such networks.
This Double-mobilization pattern emphasizes that international advocacy actors
endeavor to engage, collaborate with, and advocate around the state, even as they
establish connections and solidarity with local societal groups. I propose this double-
mobilization concept to capture the gradual, consensual, and sustainable aspect of
transnational activism. Second, it is not sufficient to use political regime type as the
main causal variable to examine the emergence and evolvement of transnational
activism and advocacy networks. Evidence from China has shown that the politics
generated by international NSAs in a non-democratic country is complex, and despite
strict macro-structures, transnational advocacy networks are emerging. Third, I argue
that two domestic micro-level structures—decentralization within the state, and
interconnections within existing civil society groups—strongly influence the political
relations of transnational activism and networks. With decentralized environmental
governance, and a strong and connected local environmentalist community,
international NGOs have been able to generate, expand, and consolidate their
mobilization networks in both governmental and societal domains in nature
conservation. While transnational NGO linkages and networks are surfacing in
HIV/AIDS preventions in China, both the scope and level of deepening of such
networks are still limited.
DOUBLE-MOBILIZATION:
TRANSNATIONAL ADVOCACY NETWORKS FOR
CHINA’S ENVIRONMENT AND PUBLIC HEALTH

by

Fengshi Wu

Dissertation submitted to the Faculty of the Graduate School of the
University of Maryland, College Park in partial fulfillment
of the requirements for the degree of
Doctor of Philosophy
2005

Dissertation Committee:

Professor Ken Conca, Chair
Professor Douglas Grob
Professor Margaret Pearson
Professor Miranda Schreurs
Professor James Gao, Dean representative
© Copyright by
Fengshi Wu
2005
ii

To my parents, Wu Zhigui and Ge Yumei

献给我的父亲母亲，吴志桂、葛玉梅
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Numerous people have shared with me their insights on transnational activism and
China’s environmental and public health governance, without which this dissertation
would only be in vain. Special thanks are due to Wen Bo, Dr. Weng Yongkai,
Humphrey Wou, Jin Jiaman, Dr. Jennifer Turner, and Jim Harkness. I acknowledge
the valuable input from my whole Dissertation Committee to bring about the final
product. Professor Ken Conca spent countless hours reading various field reports and
chapter drafts and provided comments during the process. I am grateful to the Blue
Moon Foundation and Beijing Global Environmental Institute for their financial and
logistic support for my field work in China in 2004. Billy Varettoni, Jenny
Wüstenberg, Keri Parker, and Ken Cousins gave generous assistance in editing the
final draft. I thank Professor Charles Butterworth, Waseem El-Rayes and Ghada Al-
Madbouh for their friendship and support during my graduate years and dissertation
writing. Finally, this dissertation is dedicated to my parents for their love and
education.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS

Notes...........................................................................................................................v
List of Abbreviations...................................................................................................vi
List of Figures.............................................................................................................vii
List of Tables...............................................................................................................viii

Chapter 1....................................................................................................................1
International Non-state Actors, Transnational Activism, and China: An Introduction

Chapter 2....................................................................................................................40
Transnational Advocacy Networks in Theory

Non-state Actors in Translational Relations
Double-mobilization: Transnational Advocacy Networks Theory Revisited
Domestic Structures and Transnational Advocacy Networks

Chapter 3....................................................................................................................107
Transnational Nature Conservation Advocacy Networks in China

The Nature Conservation Crisis
Environmental Civil Society
International Advocacy Actors and Transnational Networks in Nature Conservation

Chapter 4....................................................................................................................198
Transnational HIV/AIDS Prevention Advocacy Networks in China

China’s AIDS Epidemic
Social Activism in HIV/AIDS Prevention
International Advocacy Actors and Transnational Networks in HIV/AIDS Prevention

Chapter 5....................................................................................................................285
Domestic Structures and Transnational Double-mobilization: A Cross-sectoral Comparison

Chapter 6....................................................................................................................355
Conclusions

Appendices.................................................................................................................382
Bibliography..............................................................................................................394
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NOTES

1) All Chinese names are kept in the format of last name first and first name second,
except wherever is specially noted.
2) Currencies: RMB—China Yuan, UKP—U.K. pound, USD—U.S. dollar
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LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

AIDS—Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome
CSW—commercial sex workers
CITES—Convention on International Trade of Endangered Species
EPA—(provincial and local) Environmental Protection Bureaus
HIV—Human Immunodeficiency Virus
GONGO—government organized non-governmental organization
IDU—Intravenous Drug User
NPC—National People’s Congress
MoH—Chinese Ministry of Health
MSM—men have sex with men
MTCT—mother-to-child transmission
NGO—Non-governmental organization
NSA—non-state actors
PLWHA—People Living with HIV/AIDS
SARS—Syndrome of Acute Repertory Syndrome
SEPA—Chinese State Environmental Protection Administration
SFB—Chinese State Forestry Bureau
UNAIDS—United Nations AIDS Programme
VCT—voluntary counseling and testing (for potential HIV+ patients)
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LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 2.1. The Boomerang Model (Keck and Sikkink, 1998)…………………….. 60
Figure 2.2. The Double-mobilization Model...............................................................66
Figure 2.3. Comparing the temporal dimension of the Boomerang and Double-
mobilization models (two parts)……………...…………………………..71-72
Figure 2.4. A synthesis of the Boomerang and Double-mobilization models……….75
Figure 2.5. Impact of domestic democracy and social mobilization on transnational
advocacy networks………………………………..………………………….82
Figure 3.1. Governing bodies related to nature conservation in China….………….115
Figure 3.2. Data on reforestation (total size and the part converted from arable
lands, 1999-2004)…………………………………………………………..122
Figure 3.3. Growth of international NGOs in nature conservation in China……….146
Figure 3.4. General characteristics of international NGO community in nature
conservation in China………………………………………………………147
Map 3.3. WWF, TNC and CI conservation the eco-hotspot in southwest China…..178
Figure 4.1. Official accumulative numbers of HIV and AIDS patients……………. 203
Map 4.1. Geographic distribution of HIV infection cases (2003 estimates)………..204
Figure 4.2. Modes of transmission among HIV/AIDS cases (2003 estimates)……. 204
Box 4.1. Structure of the State Committee of AIDS Control and Prevention………213
Figure 4.3. Governing structures in HIV/AIDS prevention in China………………213
Figure 4.4. Growth of international NGOs working in health and AIDS in China…250
Figure 4.5. General characteristics of international NGO community in AIDS
prevention in China…………………………………………………………254
Figure 5.1. Growth of international NGOs in conservation, health, and HIV/AIDS
prevention in China…………………………………………………………289
Figure 6.1. Domestic micro-level structures and the emergence of transnational
advocacy networks………………………………………………………….368
Figure 6.2. Domestic micro-level structures and the political patterns of transnational
advocacy networks………………………………………………………….368