Distributed Renewable Energies for Off-Grid Communities. Strategies and Technologies toward Achieving Sustainability in Energy Generation and Supply

393 Pages·2012·30.307 MB·English

by  N. El Bassam, P. Maegaard and Marcia Lawton Schlichting (Eds.)

DISTRIBUTED RENEWABLE
ENERGIES FOR OFF-GRID
COMMUNITIES
Strategies and Technologies toward
Achieving Sustainability in Energy
Generation and Supply
NASIR EL BASSAM
PREBEN MAEGAARD
MARCIA LAWTON SCHLICHTING
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ElBassam,Nasir
Distributedrenewableenergiesforoff-gridcommunities:planning,technologies,andapplications/N.El
Bassam,P.Maegaard,MarciaLawtonSchlichting.
p.cm.
Includesbibliographicalreferences.
ISBN978-0-12-397178-4
1.Smallpowerproductionfacilities.2.Distributedgenerationofelectricpower.3.Renewableenergysources.
4.Electricpowerdistribution.5.Energydevelopment.I.Maegaard,Preben.II.Schlichting,MarciaLawton.III.
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PREFACE
The time of cheap oil and gas is over. Mankind can survive without glob-
alization, financial crises and flights to the moon or Mars but not without
adequate and affordable energy availability.
Energy is directly related to the most critical economic and social issues
thataffectsustainabledevelopmentsuchaswatersupplysanitation,mobility,
food production, environmental quality, education, job creation, security
andpeaceinregional andglobalcontexts.Indeedthemagnitudeofchange
neededisimmense,fundamentalanddirectlyrelatedtotheenergyproduced
andconsumednationallyandinternationally.Inaddition,itisestimatedthat
almost two billion people worldwide lack access to modern energy
resources.
Current approaches to energy are non-sustainable and non-renewable.
Today,theworld’senergysupplyislargelybasedonfossilfuelsandnuclear
power. Thesesources ofenergy willnot last foreverand haveproven to be
contributors to our environmental problems. In less than three centuries
since the industrial revolution, mankind has already burned roughly half of
the fossil fuels that accumulated under the earth’s surface over hundreds of
millions of years. Nuclear power is also based on a limited resource
(uranium) and the use of nuclear power creates such incalculable risks that
nuclear power plants cannot be insured. After 50 years of intensive
research, no single safe long-term disposal site for radioactive waste has
been found.
Although some of the fossil energy resources might last a little longer
than predicted, especially if additional reserves are discovered, the main
problemof“scarcity”willremain,andthisrepresentsthegreatestchallenge
to humanity.
Renewable energy offers our planet a chance to reduce carbon emis-
sions, clean the air, and put our civilization on a more sustainable footing.
Renewable sources of energy are an essential part of an overall strategy of
sustainabledevelopment.Theyhelpreducedependenceofenergyimports,
thereby ensuring a sustainable supply and climate protection. Furthermore,
renewable energy sources can help improve the competitiveness of indus-
triesoverthelongrunandhaveapositiveimpactonregionaldevelopment
and employment. Renewable energies will provide a more diversified,
balanced, and stable pool of energy sources.
j
xi
xii Preface
Some countries of the EU such as Denmark, China, Germany, Austria
and Spain as well as China and India have already demonstrated the
impressive pace of transition that can be achieved in renewable energy
deployment,iftherightpoliciesandframeworksareinplace.Alsothenew
USpolicy has madeclear its determination to massively increase renewable
energy in the US, giving strong and clear signals to the world.
The main target of this book will be a comprehensive and solid
contribution to enlighten the vital role of developing decentralized and
distributed renewable energy production and supply for off-grid commu-
nitiesalongwiththeirtechnicalfeasibilitiestomeetthegrowingdemandfor
energy and to face the present and future challenges of limited fossil and
nuclear fuel reserves, global climate change and financial crises. It deals also
with various options and case studies related to the potential of renewable
energies and the future transition versions along with their environmental,
economic and social dimensions.
Withrapidandcontinuedgrowthintheworld,itisnolongeraquestion
ofwhenwewillincorporatevariousrenewableenergysourcesintothemix,
but how fast the transition can be managed.
The Authors
Prof. Dr. N. El Bassam
Prof. P. Meagaard
M. Schlichting
June 2012
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1.1: Relevance of distributed generation.
India Energy Portal, Distributed Generation, www.indiaenergyportal.org/
subthemes.php?text¼
Figure 1.2a, b: Stand-alone off-grid systems.
http://www.wholesalesolar.com/products.folder/systems-folder/
OFFGRID
Figure 1.3: Off-grid system which can be also connected to the grid.
Reprinted with permission. (cid:1)2012 Home Power Inc., www.homepower.
com
Figure 1.4: Combined power plant.
http://www.blog.thesietch.org/2007/12/30/germany-going-100-
renewable-or-yet-another-reason-why-america-is-falling-behind/ .
Accessed March 23, 2010
Figure 2.1: Past, present and future energy sources.
Source: El Bassam, 1992
Figure 2.2: Global final energy consumption, 2006 (REN21, 2007).
Source: REN21 Renewables 2007 Global Status Report, Copyright
(cid:1) 2008 Deutsche Gesellschaft fu€r Technische Zusammenarbeit (GTZ)
GmbH. www.ren21.net
Figure 2.3: Regional breakdown of world energy demand scenario in the
new policies.
Source: Projection of EIA 2009
Figure 2.4: Peak oil: The decline of global production output will lead to
peak cheap oil by 2012 (Projection of EIA 2009).
Figure 2.5: Global energy demand and resources.
Source: BSU Solar, BSU Solar (German Solar Industry Assoc.), 2007
Figure 2.6: Physical potential of renewable energies.
Source: Nitsch, F., BMU documentation, 2007
Figure 3.1: Sustainability in regional and global context demands, risks and
measures.
Source: El Bassam, 2004
j
xiii
xiv ListofFigures
Figure 3.2: Pathways of the Integrated Energy Community (IEC).
El Bassam, Nasir; Maegaard (2004): Integrated Renewable Energy For Rural
Communities:PlanningGuidelines,TechnologiesandApplications,ElsevierB.V.,
Amsterdam
Figure 3.3: A model for an Integrated Energy Community with farming
systems.
El Bassam, N. (2001), “Renewable Energy for Rural Communities”,
Renewable Energy 24 (2001), 401–408
Figure 3.4: Basic elements and needs of Integrated Renewable Energy
Community.
(El Bassam, 2000)
Figure 3.5: Integration of PV-plants and diesel set and parallel operation of
Sunny Island inverters.
El Bassam, Nasir; Maegaard (2004)
Figure 3.6: Integration of PV-plants, diesel set and parallel operation of
Sunny Island inverters.
El Bassam, Nasir; Maegaard (2004)
Figure3.7:TheparalleloperationofSunnyIslandinverterssuitableforhigh
performance.
El Bassam, Nasir; Maegaard (2004)
Figure 3.8: Technologies for heat and power production on Integrated
Renewable Energy Community.
El Bassam, Nasir; Maegaard (2004)
Figure 3.9: Implementation of the Integrated Renewable Energy
Community, Dedelstorf, Germany.
El Bassam, N. (1999), Integrated Energy Farm Feasibility Study, SREN-
FAO
Figures 4.1–Figures 5.8 were accessed from the book El Bassam, Nasir &
Maegaard, Preben, Integrated Renewable Energy for Rural Communities: Plan-
ning Guidelines, Technologies and Applications, 1st Ed., Elsevier Science,
published June 30, 2004, pp 50–70.
Figure 4.1: Planning steps Integrated Energy Farm (Scenario 1).
Figure 4.2: Implementation of Integrated Energy Farm, IEF (Scenario 1).
Figure 4.3: Planning Steps of IEF (Scenario 2).
ListofFigures xv
Figure 4.4: Implementation of the Integrated Energy Farm (IEF)
(Scenario 2).
Figure 4.5a: General system complex of power generation of an Integrated
Energy Generation.
Figure 4.5b: Basic diagram of the system control unit of the Power
Generation system on an Integrated Energy Farm.
Source: Wolf, M. (1998) modified by the authors
Figure 5.1: Flow chart for the modeling approach (Scenario 1).
Figure 5.2: Flow chart for the modeling approach (Scenario 2).
Figure 5.3: Cereal yield and energy input per hectare for the main world
regions.
Figure 5.4: Modern energy consumption and food intake.
Figure 5.5: Main components of a solar thermo-electric system.
Source: Adapted from De Laquil et al., 1993
Figure 5.6: Flowchart of a solar cell.
Figure 5.7: Flowchart of main structure of a PV system.
Figure 5.8: Oil extraction, products, by-products and utilization.
Source: Krause, 1995
Figure 6.1: Global renewable power capacities (excluding hydro).
Source: REN21, Renewables Global Status Report (2006 - 2011), 30
October 2011
Figure 6.2: Main sources of renewable energy (Community Renewable
Energy Toolkit). Commissioned by the Scottish Government and Energy
Saving Trust, produced by Community Energy Scotland Limited, (cid:1)
Queen’s Printer for Scotland 2009, 2010, 2011
Figure 7.1a: A solar cell made from a monocrystalline silicon wafer and
polycrystallinephotovoltaiccellslaminatedtobackingmaterialinamodule.
Photo: Department of Energy (http://www.eere.energy.gov/solar/pv_
systems.html Retrieved Aug. 17, 2005).
Figure 7.1b: Multiple modules can be wired together to form an array; in
general,thelargertheareaofamoduleorarray,themoreelectricitythatwill
be produced.
xvi ListofFigures
Photo: Georg Slickers, 2006 (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Creative_
Commons)
Figure 7.2: The graph shows the market share of the different photovoltaic
technologies from 1999 until 2011. The light and dark blue are multi- and
mono crystalline silicon respectively; together they represented 87% of the
market in 2010.
Cleanenergy 2011, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:PV_Technology.png
Figure 7.3: Photovoltaic (PV) power plant.
Photo by Dennis Schroeder, NREL/PIX 19176, http://www1.eere.
energy.gov/solar/pdfs/52481.pdf
Figure7.4:WaldpolenzSolarPark,Germany.FirstSolar40-MWCdTePV
Array installed by JUWI Group in Waldpolenz, Germany.
JUWI Solar GmbH, Energie-Allee 1, 55286 Wo€rrstadt · Germany, 2008
http://www.juwi.com/solar_energy/large_scale_plants.html
Figure 7.5: The 71.8 MW Lieberose Photovoltaic Park in Germany.
JUWI Group 2008, http://www.juwi.com/solar_energy/references/
lieberose_solar_park.html
Figure7.6a:SolarpanelsontheInternationalSpaceStationabsorblightfrom
both sides. These Bifacial cells are more efficient and operate at lower
temperature than single sided equivalents.
Source: http://www.walkinspace.ru/photo/24-0-2107
Figure 7.6b: A self-deploying photovoltaic array on the Moon. Artist’s
concept by Les Bossinas, NASA Lewis Research Center. (NASA Science/
Science News, April 2011 http://science.nasa.gov/science-news/science-
at-nasa/2002/08jan_sunshine/)
Figure 7.7: A camel transports cooling box for medicine, powered by solar
energy in the Sahara.
(Solar Power Panels, 2009 http://solarpowerpanels.ws/solar-power/
camels-carry-solar-powered-refrigerators-for-mobile-health-clinics)
Figure 7.8: Parabolic trough system schematic.
Photo credit: Abengoa Solar, Concentrating Solar Power Commercial
Application Study, U.S. Department of Energy, 2001 http://www1.eere.
energy.gov/solar/pdfs/csp_water_study.pdf
Figure 7.9: 64 MW Nevada Solar 1 solar plant.
ListofFigures xvii
Photo credit: Abengoa Solar, Concentrating Solar Power Commercial
Application Study, U.S. Department of Energy, 2001 http://www1.eere.
energy.gov/solar/pdfs/csp_water_study.pdf
Figure 7.10: SEGS trough plants.
Photo credit: Abengoa Solar, Concentrating Solar Power Commercial
Application Study, U.S. Department of Energy, 2001 http://www1.eere.
energy.gov/solar/pdfs/csp_water_study.pdf
Figure 7.11: Nevada Solar 1 CSP collector.
Photo credit: Abengoa Solar, Concentrating Solar Power Commercial
Application Study, U.S. Department of Energy, 2001 http://www1.eere.
energy.gov/solar/pdfs/csp_water_study.pdf
Figure 7.12: Linear Fresnel Collector (Ausra).
Photo credit: Abengoa Solar, Concentrating Solar Power Commercial
Application Study, U.S. Department of Energy, 2001 http://www1.eere.
energy.gov/solar/pdfs/csp_water_study.pdf
Figure 7.13: A commercial unit under development by Abengoa called
PS10, an 11 MW plant in Seville Spain.
Photo credit: Abengoa Solar, Concentrating Solar Power Commercial
Application Study, U.S. Department of Energy, 2001 http://www1.eere.
energy.gov/solar/pdfs/csp_water_study.pdf
Figure7.14:Prototype150kWdish/StirlingpowerplantatSandiaNational
Laboratory.
Photo credit: Abengoa Solar, Concentrating Solar Power Commercial
Application Study, U.S. Department of Energy, 2001 http://www1.eere.
energy.gov/solar/pdfs/csp_water_study.pdf
Figure 7.15: Heat transfer and latent heat storage in inorganic molten salts
for concentrating solar power plants.
(DOECSPR&D:StorageAwardOverview,DOEHQjApril28,2010,Joe
StekliCSPTeamSolar Energy TechnologiesProgramU.S.Department of
Energy http://www1.eere.energy.gov/solar/pdfs/storage_award_progress_
seia.pdf)
Figure 7.16: Evacuated tube.
(Hot Water Adelaide, Solar, Gas & Heat Pump, www.hotwaternow.com.
au/colchester_solar_panel.jpg)
xviii ListofFigures
Figure 7.17: Flat plate collectors.
(Solar Tribune 2012 http://solartribune.com/solar-thermal-power/#.T0_
PvfU0iuI)
Figure7.18:Directsystems:(A)PassiveCHSsystemwithtankabovecollector.
(B)Activesystemwithpumpandcontrollerdrivenbyaphotovoltaicpanel.
(Jwhferguson, self-publishedwork2010, accessedfrom URLhttp://www.
solarcontact.com/solar-water/heater)
Figure7.19:Indirectactivesystems:(C)Indirectsystemwithheatexchanger
intank;(D)Drainbacksystemwithdrainbackreservoir.Intheseschematics
the controller and pump are driven by mains electricity.
Euro-Flachstecker_2.jpg:SomnusDe2010,WolffMechanicalInc,accessed
from URL http://azairconditioning.com/residential/solar-heaters/
Figure 7.20: Bolivia Inti-Sud Soleil solar cooker construction
workshop.
(SolarCookersWorldNetwork,October2011,http://solarcooking.wikia.
com/wiki/Solar_Cookers_World_Network_%28Home%29)
Figure 8.1: Lillgrund Wind Farm’s wind turbines in the Sound near
Copenhagen and Malmo€.
Source: Mariusz Pa(cid:2)zdziora, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Sund_
mpazdziora.JPG 2007
Figure 8.2: Capacity of wind turbines worldwide.
([WWEANews]WorldMarketforWindTurbinessetsnewrecord:42GWof
new capacity, total capacity at 239 GW 2012. http://www.wwindea.org/
home/index.php?option¼com_content&task¼view&id¼345&Itemid¼43#)
Figure 8.3: Vertical-axis wind turbine in Cap-Chat, Quebec.
Source: Spiritrock4u at en.wikipedia, 7-12-2008 (original upload date)
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Quebecturbine.JPG
Figure 8.4: Offshore windfarm using 5MW turbinesRE power 5M in the
North Sea off Belgium.
Source: Hans Hillewaert, 2008 (Wind Turbine Types, 2012)
Figure 8.5: Eleven 7.5 MW E126 at Estinnes Windfarm, Belgium, two
months before completion, with unique two-part blades.
Source:Melipal1,July2010,http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Windpark_
Estinnes_20juli2010_kort_voor_voltooiing.jpg