Table Of ContentDistance Learning:
Principles for Effective
Design, Delivery, and
Evaluation
Chandra Mohan
Mehrotra
Copyright © 2001 by Sage Publications, Inc.
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced or utilized in any form or by
any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or by any
information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the
publisher.
For information:
Sage Publications, Inc.
2455 Teller Road
Thousand Oaks, California 91320
E-mail: [email protected]
Sage Publications Ltd.
6 Bonhill Street
London EC2A 4PU
United Kingdom
Sage Publications India Pvt. Ltd.
M-32 Market
Greater Kailash I
New Delhi 110 048 India
Printed in the United States of America
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Mehrotra, Chandra.
Distance learning: Principles for effective design, delivery, and
evaluation / by Chandra Mehrotra, C. David Hollister, and Lawrence
McGahey.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references (p. ) and index.
ISBN 0-7619-2088-9 (c) — ISBN 0-7619-2089-7 (p)
1. Distance education—Curricula. 2. Education, Higher—Curricula.
3. Instructional systems—Design. I. Hollister, C. David. II. McGahey,
Lawrence. III. Title.
LC5800 .M44 2001
378.1’75—dc21 2001002978
This book is printed on acid-free paper.
02 03 04 05 06 07 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
Acquisition Editor: Jim Brace-Thompson
Editorial Assistant: Karen Ehrmann
Production Editor: Sanford Robinson
Editorial Assistant: Cindy Bear
Typesetter/Designer: Tina Hill
Cover Designer: Sandra Ng
Contents
Acknowledgments vii
Introduction ix
Background and Audience x
Overview of the Contents xi
Our Companion Web Site xii
1. Distance Education: What Is It?
And Why Is It Expanding So Rapidly? 1
Impacts of Technology on Distance Education 2
The Prevalence of Distance Education in the United States 4
Societal Changes Contributing to the
Growth of Distance Education 6
The Impact of Distance Education on Traditional Instruction 9
Criticisms of Distance Education 11
Conclusion 13
2. Attracting Students to Distance Learning 15
How to Assess the Need and Demand for a
Distance Program 16
Target Audience 19
Instructional Design and Mode of Delivery 20
Strategies for Marketing Distance Courses and Programs 21
Specific Ideas for Promoting and Marketing
Distance Programs 23
Conclusion 27
3. Good Practices in Distance Education:
How to Promote Student Learning and
Development 29
The Good Practices 31
Summary Tips 50
4. The Syllabus for Distance Learning Courses 53
What Is a Syllabus? 54
More Than a List 55
Outline for a Syllabus: Putting It Together 56
Other Issues 66
Summary Tips 67
5. Delivery Methods for Distance Education 69
Synchronous or Asynchronous? 70
Synchronous Delivery Methods 72
Asynchronous Delivery Methods 76
Conclusion 88
6. Selecting Delivery Methods 95
Fundamental Principles to Observe in
Selecting Delivery Methods 96
A Decision Tree Approach to Selecting a Delivery Method 105
Conclusion 109
7. Support Services 115
Support Services Prior to Enrollment 118
Support Services for Enrolled Students 124
Support Services After Course or Program Completion 132
Summary 135
8. Ensuring High Completion Rates 139
The Problem of Retention 140
Retention in Distance Education Programs 140
Strategies for Improving Completion Rates 144
Summary Tips 149
9. Assessing Learning Outcomes 153
Guiding Principles 154
Methods of Assessment 160
Conclusion 168
Summary Tips 169
10. Program Evaluation 173
Evaluating Program Inputs 176
Program Processes 179
Assessing Outcomes 181
Analysis of Costs and Outcomes 188
Conclusion 191
Summary Tips 192
11. Accreditation 195
Guidelines for Distance Learning 196
Providing Evidence Regarding the
Program’s Effectiveness in Meeting the Guidelines 199
Conclusion 216
Summary Tips 217
Conclusion 223
Author Index 231
Subject Index 235
About the Authors 241
Acknowledgments
I
n preparing this book, we have drawn on the ideas, theo
ries, and research of colleagues from a variety of colleges, universities,
institutes, and organizations who have developed creative ways to help
students learn at a distance, raised important questions about effective
ness of instruction, and identified issues that need to be addressed. But
most immediately, we are indebted to our own institutions, The College
of St. Scholastica and the University of Minnesota, for the continuing
opportunities to design and offer distance programs, to assess their
effectiveness, and to use the findings for program improvement. With
out these experiences, we could not have even thought about writing
this book.
We are grateful to the members of the library staff at The College of
St. Scholastica and the University of Minnesota. They demonstrated ex
ceptional competence in providing us a large variety of reference mate
rials in a timely fashion. The peer reviewers, Charles R. Geist, Betty
Elliott, and Sharon B. Johnson, who read and critiqued the manuscript
offered us valuable suggestions and pedagogical advice. We did our
vii
viii DISTANCE LEARNING
best to incorporate many of the ideas, suggestions, and insights they
gave us, although by no means all; any remaining errors are ours alone.
Our families and friends offered us encouragement and assistance
in many ways. Chandra Mehrotra wishes to acknowledge Indra
Mehrotra, his wife and best friend, for her enduring support. He thanks
their two children, Vijay and Gita, for their continuing interest in his
work. He also thanks Nancy Bois for typing a substantial portion of the
manuscript. David Hollister expresses deep appreciation to Georgiana
Hollister, his wife and best friend, for her continuing support. David
also wishes to acknowledge their three children, Patrick, Jonathan, and
Martha, for their interest in his work on this project.
We had the good fortune to work with dedicated professionals at
Sage. Jim Brace-Thompson initiated discussions about this project at
the 1998 American Psychological Association convention where
Chandra Mehrotra had organized a symposium on distance learning.
This support and interest has been most gratifying throughout the pro
cess. It has been a pleasure to work with him. In addition, we appreciate
the thoroughness of copy editor Alison Binder, whose knowledge
about good writing enhanced the quality of the book.
Introduction
D
istance learning, or distance education, is not a future
possibility for which higher education must prepare—it is a current real
ity creating new opportunities and challenges for educational institu
tions; a reality offering students expanded choices in where, when, how,
and from whom they learn; and a reality making education accessible to
ever larger numbers of persons. Indeed, during the past several years,
there has been a dramatic increase in the number of colleges, universi
ties, and other providers offering distance education courses, work
shops, and programs. A U.S. Department of Education report indicates
that from 1995 to 1998, the number of institutions offering distance learn
ing increased by 33%; during the same period, the number of distance
courses and enrollments doubled (National Center for Education Statis
tics, 1999). Many observers believe that this growth is likely to continue.
Why? Properly implemented, distance education can enhance the learn
ing experience and increase access to higher education for a wide variety
of potential students, especially those who have not been able to take
advantage of the traditional on-campus experience.
ix
