Table Of ContentDiscovering
Jerusalem
by
NahmAavni gad
"SHIKMOPNUAB"L ISHCIONMGP ANLYT D.
inc ooperwaittiho n
ISRAEEXLP LORATSIOOCNI ETY
O0L4k)7l6 6
OriginalHebreweditionpublishedinIsraelbyShikmona
Publishing Co., Ltd., Jerusalem.
Copyright © 1980 by Nahman Avigad
All rights reserved. Written permission must be secured
from the publisher to use or reproduce any part of this
book, except for brief quotations in critical reviews or
articles.
Published in the United States in Nashville, Tennessee,
by Thomas Nelson, Inc., Publishers and distributed in
Canada by Lawson Falle, Ltd., Cambridge, Ontario.
First American printing: 1983.
Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data
Avigad, Nahman. OUR FEET HAVE BEEN STANDING
Discovering Jerusalem.
WITHIN YOUR GATES, 0 JERUSALEM,
Translation of: ha- ‘Ir ha-’elyonah shel Yerushalyim.
Bibliography: p. JERUSALEM, BUILT AS A CITY
Includes index.
I. Jerusalem—Antiquities. 2. Excavations
(Archaeology)—Jerusalem. I. Title. WHICH IS COMPACT TOGETHER
DS1O9.A74813 1983 933 83-17220
ISBN 0-8407—5299—7
Psalms: 122
Printed in the United States of America.
CONTENTS
II PREFACE
13 INTRODUCTION
CHAPTERO!’E
THE PERIOD OF THE FIRST TEMPLE
23 1. Jerusalem in the Bible and in Other Ancient Sources
26 2. Where was Early Jerusalem Situated?
31 3. Discovering Israelite Remains on the Western Hill
54 4. The Significance of the Israelite Fortifications on the Western Hill
CHAPTER TWO
AFTER THE DESTRUCTION OF THE FIRST TEMPLE
61 An Interlude on the Western Hill
CHAPTERTHREE
THE PERIOD OF THE SECOND TEMPLE
64 1. The Hasmonean Resettlement of the Western Hill
81 2. Intense Development under the Herodians
83 3. A Residence from the Days of Herod
95 4. A Palatial Mansion
120 5. The “Burnt House”
139 6. Jewish Ritual Baths
144 7. Early Mosaic Pavements
147 8. The Menorah Graffito and Fresco Fragments
150 9. Remnants of Monumental Architecture
165 10. The Crafts of Jerusalem—Stone, Pottery, Glass
193 11. Odds and Ends—”Theater Tokens,” Coins, Inscriptions
CHAPTFR FOUR
AFTER THE DESTRUCTION OF THE SECOND TEMPLE
205 The Roman City—A Second Interlude on the Western Hill
CHAPTERFIVE
BYZANTINE JERUSALEM
208 1. The Flowering of a Byzantine City
213 2. Tracing the Cardo Maximus
229 3. In Quest of the Great Nea Church
CHAPTERSiX
IN THE MIDDLE AGES
247 Muslim and Crusader Remains
259 EPILOGUE
262 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE
263 SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY
PREFACE
Thearchaeologicalexcavationsin theJewish Quarterofthe Old CityofJerusalem havenow
been in progress for more than ten years running. They have expanded from their modest
beginnings in 1969 toembraceabroadscopethatencompassesseve:alperiodsandarchaeologi
cal strata. The many remains that they have yielded have brought with them a new fund of
knowledge on ancient Jerusalem and its history.
The presentvolumeisageneralpreliminaryaccount ofthisfirstdecade ofourwork. Certain
mattersdealtwith in the Hebreweditionofthisbook(1980)suchasthe Israelitegatetower,the
Cardo, and the Nea church, have been brought up to date, following further discoveries in
1980-1981.
Ihave soughtto tell thestoryoftheexcavationsinamannerthatwillallowthegeneralreader
toenterintothe spiritofourwork;atthesametime,Ihavetreatedthematerialinsuchamanner
that scholars and students can use the book asareliablesource until the finalscientific reports
are published. This, Ihope,releases mefrom partofmymoralobligationtowardallthose who
cherishJerusalemand its past,as wellastoward the cityitself, whichhasbeenmostgenerousin
yielding up to us its hidden treasures.
Anotherobligation thatitis nowmypleasantdutyto fulfillisthatofexpressingmythanksto
the manywhohavelentahandtoourexcavationsinonewayoranother. Foremostamongthose
to be mentioned are the institutions upon whose behalfI directedtheexcavations: the Institute
of Archaeology of the Hebrew University, Jerusalem; the Department of Antiquities and
Museums ofthe Israel Ministry ofEducation and Culture, and the Israel ExplorationSociety.
Jointinterestshave lettheJewish Quarter ReconstructionandDevelopmentCompanybecome
a partnerin our work, and ithasbornemostofthefinancialburdenoftheexcavations.Without
the cooperation ofthe Companyandits successivedirectorsand seniorstaff, ourachievements
in the field would have been unattainable.
Financialassistance wasalsoforthcomingfrom the America-IsraelCulturalFoundation,the
AmbassadorInternational Cultural Foundation (Pasadena,California)and, inthe initialyears
ofourwork,fromDr. ReubenHechtofHaifa. ProfessorAvraham Biran,formerDirectorofthe
Department of Antiquities and Museums, Abraham Eitan, incumbent Director, and District
Archaeologist Amos Kloneralllent theirsupport,especiallyinovercomingthewebofadminis
trative andlegalproblemsthataroseduringthecourseofwork.Mr.JosephAviram,Directorof
the Institute ofArchaeology and Honorary Secretary ofthe Israel ExplorationSociety, wasof
invaluableassistance inmanyareasofourwork,includingthefurtheranceoftheEnglishedition
of this book.
The success of any archaeological excavation depends largely upon team work, and our
expedition was blessed with a loyal and devoted staffwhose members, all formerstudents of
mine,werefullyawareofthesignificanceofthetaskentrustedtothem.Thepresentvolumeis,to
a great extent, the fruitofourjointeffort,both inthefieldandin staffdiscussions. Dr. Amibai
Mazar,the first ofthe stafftojoinus, servedablyaschieffieldsupervisorforthefirsttwoyears.
He was succeededby HillelGeva,the onlystaffmemberwhohasremainedwiththeexcavations
throughout. Ronny Reich, who was with us for nine years, served as chief surveyor and, on
occasion, as an area supervisor as well. The senior staffwas rounded out by area supervisors
Shlomo Margalit and Zvi Maoz. Over the years othersjoined the stafffor a seasonorso; they
are, in chronological order: Dan Zipper, Yitzhaq Levy, Nahman Gershon, Dan Behar, Ben
jamin Zass, Nadav Lepinski, Rekhav Rubin (area supervisors); Doron Chen (architect); and
Leen Ritmeyer (surveyor and draughtsman). The registration ofour finds was undertaken, in
succession, by Dma Kastel, Sara Hofri, Atzmona Wachsman-Perl, Hagit Mashat and Martha
Goldberg. Dr. Yaakov Meshorer kindly served as numismatic advisor. Avinoam Glick took
11
INTRODUCTION
most ofthe field photographs. The actual labor in the field was carried outby Arab workmen
from Jerusalem and the vicinity. Veteran head foreman Ibrahim Ghassuli, called Abu Ribhi,
must be especiallycommended forhisloyalandefficientwork;hisarchaeologicalcareerbegan
in 1930 under the late Sir William Flinders Petrie.
An exhibition ofarchaeologicalfindsfromtheJewish Quarterexcavations,heldatthe Israel
Museumin Jerusalemin 1976,wasorganizedbyMrs.YaelIsraeli,Curator.Thismostsuccessful
exhibition wasdesignedtoemphasizethepotentialofthefindsinhelpingtoreconstructchapters
in the daily life ofancient Jerusalem.The exhibitioncatalogue which Ithen wrote was theseed
from whichthepresentvolumegrew.Thepreparationandpublicationofthepresentvolumehas
been a team effort. Its rich illustrative material is the work ofseveral photographers (see the
Photo Acknowledgements). Hillel Geva, Ronny Reich and Zvi Maoz read variouschaptersof
the Hebrewmanuscriptandmadevaluablecomments,andProfessorDanBaragkindlyreadthe The reunification of Jerusalem in 1967 was not only a great historical event
section on the glass. Mr. R. GrafmanhastranslatedtheHebrewtextintoEnglish,offeringmany
—well expressed in the Bible by the Psalmist: “Jerusalem, built as a city which is
suggestions in the process; the material was hardly new to him, for he also translated the
bound firmly together” (122:3)—but was as well an event that will long be
exhibition catalogue for the Israel Museum. Miss Norma Schneider read the English text and
gave it a more readable style. The Shikmona Publishing Company has been unstinting in the remembered as a turning point in the archaeological exploration ofthe city. The
production of this book, and Judy Silverstein has given it its attractive design. vast increase in archaeologicalexcavationsconductedin Jerusalemsincethereuni
Finally, I must expressmydeepappreciationto mywife, Shulamith,whowasa never-failing fication, in locations not even dreamt of previously, has resulted in an unantici
source of encouragement and assistance throughout the many years ofexcavations. In typing pated growth of our knowledge of the city’s past.
out the manuscript of the Hebrew version of this work, her judgment often led to a better Jerusalem, shrouded in sanctity and historical glory, was always a symbol of
balance between professional jargon and normative language. deep emotional significance for the Jewish people and for much of mankind. The
I wish to express mydeepestgratitude toall theabove fortheircooperationandassistance. I desire to depict the abstract imageofthe HolyCityhaslongfoundexpressioninthe
am sure that, upon openingthepresent volume,each ofthemwillfeelasenseofsatisfactionand imaginative and symbolic art illustrating Jerusalem and the Holy Temple, while
pride in the parthe orshe played in shedding newlighton the Upper CityofJerusalemthrough interest in the earthlyJerusalem has engenderedan extensive literature ofpilgrims
the ages.
and explorers who have described the cityand its monuments, tombs,peoples,and
daily life. It is therefore not surprising that Jerusalem—the Holy City—was the
Jerusalem N. Avigad foremost target of the excavator’s spade when archaeologists began to explore the
Holy Land in the mid-nineteenth century. The explorer F. de Saulcy took a first
step when he cleared the so-calledTomb ofthe Kings in 1863;and thefirstseriesof
systematic excavations were those undertaken by Charles Warren around the
Temple Mount, on behalfofthe Palestine Exploration Fund in London, in 1867.
The expectations of these early explorers, as well as their limited professional
qualifications, are underscored by de Saulcy’s having identified a tomb built in
Hellenistic-Roman style as the tomb ofthe kings ofJudah, missing the mark byat
least six centuries,andbyWarren’sascriptionofthe HerodianstonesoftheTemple
Mount to Solomon’s Temple, which was built nine hundred years earlier.
Since Warren’s pioneer excavations, Jerusalem has been the ultimate aim of
many excavators. No other city has had so manyexcavations, nor is any other site
so difficult to excavate. And in addition to the political and religious obstacles
placed before the early archaeologists, there were the objective deterrents of the
site—spreadingover hill and dale, having been destroyed and rebuilt innumerable
times in the long course of its history, and whose builders were often no less
destructive than the warriors who razed it. This cyclic process has left only a few
early remains intact, and those stillextantareoftencoveredbyhugeaccumulations
ofdebris, which inturnhavebeensealedoffbythedenselybuiltresidentialquarters
seen today. Very few open areas have remained for archaeological excavations in
the Old City of Jerusalem, within the present city walls.
13
12
In the past, Muslim religious authorities, ever suspicious of archaeologists,
imposed harsh restrictions which hindered excavators working in the remaining
open areas such as the vicinity of the Temple Mount. In fact, Warren and the
Bliss-Dickie expedition, during the “heroic” period of the rediscovery ofJerusa
lem, were forcedtoburrowlikemolesbeneath the surfacein ordertoavoidthe “evil
eye.” Added to the above, the early excavators ofJerusalem were plagued bva lack HerodsGate
of funds which, together with their generally insufficient qualifications, prevented 1 ER
them from coming to proper terms with the enormous task before them.
The obstacles involved precluded most of the sensational discoveries that had StChAarrrcrrhes
been anticipated. And soon, excavating in Jerusalem lost the priorityithad hadfor
the various international bodies which had been sponsoring excavations in the Notre Daree
Holy Land. The institutions and individualscholarswhich didcontinue tomeetthe
challenge of Jerusalem should therefore be commended most heartily, especially
the Palestine Exploration Fund in Britain which repeatedly and tenaciously
attacked this beckoning targetdespite the limitedmeansatitsdisposal. lamindeep
sympathy with thepioneer,CharlesWarren—agreatexcavatordespitehischrono
logical errors. He carried out his work under the most trying and dangerous
conditions. (Once, after his assistant had been buried alive bya cave-infar under
ground, Warren reported that: “Sergeant Biddles was inconvenienced for three
hours!”) He even depleted his own pocket in order to complete his first season of
excavations. And, when the functionaries ofthe Palestine Exploration Fund wrote:
“Send us results and we shall send you money,” Warren replied: “Give me tools,
materials, money and food and I will get you results.” While we, today, are not so
bold in our words, we are still in the position where funds often depend upon JaTIa
“results.”
In the best of British tradition, the British Schools ofArchaeology in Jerusalem
sponsored the last and very successful excavation undertaken by the late Dame
Kathleen Kenyon, on the “Ophel” in the city ofDavid, in the 1960s. But the lion’s
share of ancient Jerusalem—the Old City within the walls—was barely touched
and remained a hard nut to crack. It is natural that excavations within the walls
were concentrated around the periphery ofthe city, along the walls andaroundthe
Temple Mount. Sites in the residential quarters inside the densely populated areas
ofthe Old Citywereexplored onlyverysporadically. We therefore hadfragmentary GhocScrrI
and quite faulty knowledge of the city itself, in regard to both its stratigraphic SILOAM
history anditsmaterialculturein the variousperiods. Wefeltthatthe soilofthe Old
City might never yield its secrets, and that it would take an extraordinary occur
rence to bring about the circumstances prerequisite to large-scale, systematic
excSauvcahticoonnsdiintioJenrsusdaidlemin.deed evolve in the wake of the 1967 Six-Day War. After 100
Israeli sovereignty over the Old City was established, a broad plan was laid down
for the improvement and embellishment of Jerusalem, including a declaration to Plie ii Ihr Old City
the effect that the Old City was to be a protected antiquities site. This was done to
prevent historical buildings from beingdamaged and archaeological remains from
being destroyed. New construction would be permitted only after archaeological
investigation of each proposed building site. The Israel Archaeological Council
took up the challenge ofthe new circumstances with gusto, formulating aplan that
15
14
-c
________ —
3. Bird’s-eyeviewoftheJewishQuar
ter,lookingwest;atcenter,excavation
AreasFandP.theconstructionsiteof
the Yeshivat Hakotel. Photographed
in 1974
‘-3’
S
ai
a
17
7
4 Is:.
• -(l’s
4f%l. a I - -, 1 aS
/
)
S
4. Bird’s-eyeviewoftheJewishQuar
ter, looking east toward the Temple
Mount. Photographed in 1974
.1 ‘
I
%‘&%
/4]
v/s
a
-
19
called for salvage excavations as well as specific archaeological projects. This begun on each individual site. The dream ofseveral generations ofarchaeologists
was about to come true.
created anatmosphere in which widespread archaeologicalactivities wereinitiated
on a scale never before seen in Jerusalem. Three archaeological institutions underwrote the project—the Institute of
The first Israeli expedition in the field was directed by Professor Benjamin Archaeology ofthe Hebrew University in Jerusalem, the Department of Antiqui
Mazar. In 1968 hebeganexcavatingsouth and southwest ofthe Temple Mount, in ties and Museums of the Ministry of Education and Culture, and the Israel
areas which had hitherto been “taboo” for archaeologists. Many important Exploration Society. An interinstitutionalcommittee, on which Iwasarepresenta
remainscame to lightduringthecourseoftheseexcavations,whichcontinueduntil tive of the Hebrew University, was formed. When this committee offered me
1977, without infringing upon the sanctity of the adjacent holy sites. Mazar was directorshipoftheexcavations,myfirstreactionwastoexpressmyappreciationfor
able to do openly what Charles Warren and his colleagues had been forced to do the trust placed in me toconduct such a difficultand responsible task. And then, I
secretly: he exposed large portions of the Western and Southern Walls of the turned the offer down. After my colleagues on the committee asked me to recon
Temple Enclosure, laying bare the areaof“Robinson’s Arch” and uncoveringthe sider, I pleadedfor time. I was in an embarrassingposition,for Ihadplannedtogo
pavedstreetsleadingto it. Healsodiscoveredamonumentalstaircaseleadingupto abroad on sabbatical leave in order to complete research on a project which had
the “DoubleGate”inthesouthernwall,variousotherstructures,andcarvedstones occupied me for years. If the excavations continued for longer than anticipated,
from Herod’s “Royal Portico” in the outermost court of the Temple. what wouldbecomeofmysabbaticalandofmylong-standingresearchproject,and
Several more modest excavations were conducted after 1967, including workat what would become of my other commitments? Besides, I was nearingretirement
the Jerusalem Citadel (underRuth AmiranandAvraham Eitan),nearthesouthern age! And anyone perusing the ruins ofthe Jewish Quarteratthat time would have
and western Turkish city walls (under Magen Broshi, Dan Bahat, and Yizhaq envisioned lengthy excavations, full of difficulties and ending in inconclusive
Margovsky) and on Mount Zion (under Broshi), and will be referred to later on. results. The trial excavations conducted there by the Department of Antiquities
Another majorexpeditionwasentrustedwiththetaskofexcavatingintheJewish were hardly encouraging, to say the least.
Quarter, alongside the contractors rebuilding the damaged quarter. Since these On the other hand, as a veteran citizen ofJerusalem, I regarded the very idea of
latter excavations are the subject ofthis book, and sincethey were directedbythe excavating in the Old City as a great privilege and worthy ofchallenge. Since my
present writer, I should like to present some ofthebackgroundfortheundertaking earliest days in archaeology this city has occupied an important place in my
at the outset. The Jewish Quarter is one ofthe four principal residential quarters scientific endeavors. During the many seminars I have conducted with myuniver
within the present walls ofthe Old City (the others are the Muslim, Christianand 2 sitystudents on variousfacetsofthe archaeologyandtopographyofJerusalem,we
Armenian Quarters). Located in the southeastern part of the city, the Jewish were constantly facedby a seriouslack ofbasic data and an urgentneedforfurther
Quarter sitsastridethenortheasternknobofthe WesternHillofancientJerusalem, excavations. And now I was suddenly being presented with the opportunity to
opposite the Temple Mount. During the period ofthe Second Temple this wasan excavate on a site which might solve even one of the significant topographical
important residential area ofthe Upper City, the houses standing atopa loftycliff problems ofthe city. How could Irefuse?Idecidedtopostponemysabbaticalleave
overlooking the Temple courts to the east. Never having been excavated by and my other plans indefinitely, and to take upon myself this fascinating task.
archaeologists, the quarterwas a blank page, terraincognitaabout which we knew We commenced the first season ofexcavationsin the Jewish Quarter on the first
nothing. Nonetheless, it was generally regardedas one ofthe mainlocationsforan of September 1969; and the 1978 season was our tenth. In retrospect, the decade
understanding of the Upper City and the key to a solution of topographical between seems tohave beena single, longseason ofwork. Wegenerally labored in
problems which had long confronted scholars investigating Jerusalem. Whoever thefieldforabout eight months ofthe year, utilizingtherainymonthstoclarifythe
thought that it would be possible to conduct archaeological excavations there, in problems which had arisen during the preceding season, to organize the finds
the most densely built up ofall the city’s quarters? But here a popularsaying, that (registration, photographing,and drawing), and to preparefor the comingseason.
archaeology is built on destruction, proved to be true. Ifthe quarterhad not been In urgent cases we continued to excavate even in the winter months. A normal
destroyed to such agreatextent, it would not have beenpossible toexcavate there. season of archaeological excavations on other sites in Israel generally lasts for
In the war of 1948,the Arab Legion ofTransjordancapturedtheJewishQuarter, about two months. On this basis, we chalked up at least forty such “seasons” of
and itsinhabitantsweretakenprisoner. Afterthebattleforthe quarterwasdecided, work. While our capacity was tremendous, I must admit that such continuous
all ofits many synagogues were systematically destroyed and many ofthe houses digging is not the ideal waytoconductarchaeological work, iffor no other reason
fell into ruin. With the return of the Jews to the Jewish Quarter in 1967, the than the fact that it prevented us from finding the time to study the steadily
Government of Israel set up the “Company for the Reconstruction and Develop accumulating material. However, this work schedule was necessitated by the fact
ment ofthe Jewish Quarter” to restorethearea.Duringthecourseofclearingaway that these were salvage operations which could not be suspended withoutholding
the ruins and demolishing those buildings on the verge of collapse, many open up the reconstruction of the quarter.
spaces were created. Thisprovided us with the unexpectedandunique opportunity Frankly, the entire undertakingwasdifficultandexhausting,andexacerbatedby
of conducting large-scale systematic excavations before new construction was the peculiar circumstances ofexcavating alongside construction work. The bustle
21
20
.
-
.
I
CHAPTER ONE
._ :‘ — THE PERIOD OF THE FIRST TEMPLE
!
1. Jerusalem in the Bible and in Other Ancient Sources
The distant past ofJerusalemisshrouded inmist.Weknowthatthecity’shistory
goes back some five thousand years—on the basis of a small group of pottery
vessels from the Early Bronze Age I (about 3000 B.C.)found ontheslopesofthehill
on whichearliestJerusalem rose. However,archaeologyhas notyetbeenabletotell
us whether these findspointtoapropersettlementormerelytoagroupofsquatters
settled around the Gihon Spring. And the historical sources ofthisearlyperiodare
5 TheJewishQuarterfrom theeast, priorto thedestruction ofthe“TifetetIsrael”(right)and“PorathYoseph” still silent concerning the city.
(left) synagogues. Photographed byKalter The first written mention ofJerusalem may possibly be contained in the docu
ments recently discovered at Tell Mardikh, ancient Ebla, in northern Syria. These
of building and the noise of the jackhammerS bulldozers, trucks and cement clay tablets are written in cuneiform script, in a West Semitic language, and are
mixers was ourdaily lotthe year round. We reminiscednostalgicallyaboutdigging ascribed to around the middle of the third millennium B.C. According to initial
under normal conditions at remote sites. One mightswallowsomedustthere,butit reports, the name Salim (Jerusalem?) is found alongside several other city names,
was possible at least to concentrate on the task ofrevealing the past without such such as Hazor, Megiddo, Lachish,Jaffa,and Ashdod, all famous in the Bible. But
nervewracking intrusions. On such sitesthereisnodangerofhousescollapsinginto noarchaeological remains ofthe Jerusalem ofthatperiodhavecometolight onthe
the excavations, ofsewage swirlingintothetrenches,ofwetconcrete splashingover site itself.
an ancient wall uncovered the day before, ofboards placed to protect such walls Jerusalem is mentioned in ancient Egyptian sources ofthe l9th-l8th centuries
suddenly disappearing into the form for a new concrete wall, or of the hundred B.C. The “Execration Texts,” written in ink on potterybowlsandfigurines,contain
other little “hitches” which were our daily fare. Here we also had to devote much incantations against the enemies ofEgypt. The“kings”ofJerusalem(Rusha/imum)
time to conferences with the Company and its architectsand engineers, tocoordi appear there among thevariouscityrulersinCanaanand Syria.Tombsandpottery
nate activities and deal with technical problems relating to excavating within a from this sameperiod(the MiddleBronzeAge I)havebeendiscoveredontheslopes
built-uparea. Forexample. ourexcavations and thesubsequentconstructionwork of the Mount of Olives, opposite the Old City.
had to be scheduled in advance, and we had to know how near our dig could In the Bible, Jerusalem is first mentioned inthe storyofAbraham’smeetingwith
approach adjacenthouseswithoutcausingthemtocollapse,orthelocationofareas “Melchizedek, king of Salem” (that is, Jerusalem)... “priest ofGod Most High”
where we could not dig because ofsewage or other piping, and so forth. We also (Genesis 14: 18-20). Accordingtothistradition,Jerusalemwasknownintheperiod
conferred on the importantsubject ofpreserving the ancient remainswhichwehad ofthe Patriarchs (around the 18th centuryB.C.) as acity-state and the site ofa cult
uncovered and the modifications in construction which theirpreservationentailed. dedicated to the deity called El-Elyon, “God Most High,” who bore the epithet
We sought topreserveworthyremainswithinthebasementsofnewstructures,orin “Creatorofheaven and earth.” Remains ofthe eastern city wallofthisperiodhave
open spaces and to allow for their eventual preparation for tourism. While the been discovered in archaeological excavations.
Company displayed understanding and good will in most instances, in some cases Evidence of Jerusalem in the days of Egyptian rule over Canaan, in the Late
ourdemands were contested on grounds ofplanningand budget. But even here we Bronze Age (around the 14th century B.C.), is found in letters from various
generally found a successful way of compromising, and all such decisions were Canaanite rulers to their Egyptian overlords, whosecapitalwasthenatel-Amarna.
arrived at in cooperation with the Department of Antiquities, in accord with the Among these clay tablets, written in cuneiform Akkadian, are six from Abdi-beba.
guidelines set down by the Archaeological Council of Israel prior to commence King ofJerusalem(Urusalim). Archaeologistshavefound tombsandpotteryofthis
ment of our work. At present, all the excavated sites that havebeen scheduledfor period close by the city.
preservation have been covered over or temporarily enclosed; eventually they will The next chapter in the historyofJerusalem,the Israelite period, is much better
be developed appropriately and opened to the public. documented, both in biblical sources and by archaeological evidence. The follow-
22 23
