Table Of ContentEnvironmental Hazards
Fernando I. Rivera
Naim Kapucu
Disaster
Vulnerability,
Hazards and
Resilience
Perspectives from Florida
Environmental Hazards
Series editor
Thomas A. Birkland
More information about this series at h ttp://www.springer.com/series/8583
Fernando I. Rivera (cid:129) Naim Kapucu
Disaster Vulnerability,
Hazards and Resilience
Perspectives from Florida
Fernando I. Rivera Naim Kapucu
Department of Sociology School of Public Administration
University of Central Florida University of Central Florida
Orlando , FL , USA Orlando , FL , USA
Environmental Hazards
ISBN 978-3-319-16452-6 ISBN 978-3-319-16453-3 (eBook)
DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-16453-3
Library of Congress Control Number: 2015936283
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Dedicated to
Fernando: wife Lymari, and children
Ernesto, Mariana, and Daniela as they are
my guiding light and inspiration. Special
dedication also goes to my mother, who
unexpectedly passed away while I was
writing this book.
Naim: wife Ayşegül and children Emre,
Selim, and Yusuf
We also want to dedicate this book to all
emergency personnel who are at the forefront
of building resilient communities. Finally, we
dedicate this book to all underserved and
vulnerable groups; we hope this book
provides them with a voice and a place at the
table as we strive to continue to build
disaster-resilient communities.
Foreword
I ncreasing exposure to hazards and increasing social and economic vulnerability are
raising the specter of catastrophic disaster in the United States. Florida is the perfect
example as hurricanes and other forms of severe weather, drought and wildfi re,
agricultural and human diseases, the threat of foreign and domestic terrorism, and
other natural and unnatural hazards are increasing the risk to life, property, and the
environment. When we think of natural hazards in the United States, our fi rst
thoughts typically are of earthquake risks in California and hurricane risks in
Florida. While other states are faced with those and other hazards, recent experience
has demonstrated the certainty of those risks and high costs. The risk of catastrophic
disaster is probable, and the risk of signifi cant losses is certain.
Tropical cyclones have affected about half of the American states, but Florida has
been the most frequent target of the storms, particularly the catastrophic storms.
Indeed, Florida has a very long history of severe storms, and population growth and
concentration is raising the ante in terms of potential losses. Growing social vulner-
ability is exacerbating the risks, as well. The lessons learned from hurricanes in the
last century may not be remembered as clearly as they should be, but lessons learned
in the last several decades may still provide impetus for preparedness and mitigation
programs. For example, the Great Labor Day Hurricane of 1935 which caught rail-
road workers, many WWI veterans, exposed in the Florida Keys, demonstrated the
importance of early warning. The science of cyclones was not well understood at
the time, and little was done to prepare for the possibility of storms. Hurricane
Betsy in 1965, Hurricane David in 1979, and Hurricane Andrew in 1992, as well as
dozens of lesser storms, also focused attention on the needs for better warning sys-
tems, building codes and standards, strategies for evacuation, and plans for long-
term recovery. The value of vertical evacuation, the need to focus on populations
with functional needs, and the necessity of improved logistics were not on the emer-
gency managers’ radar at that time. The use of social media for warning and response
operations was a topic more likely to appear in science fi ction books. Clearly, much
of what we know about hurricanes, including the patterns of destruction wrought by
wind and water, we gleaned from experiences in Florida with those early storms.
vii
viii Foreword
Riverine fl ooding in the Midwest and West, coastal fl ooding on the East coast,
tornadoes in the Midwest and elsewhere in the South, wildfi re in the Mountain
states and West, terrorist attacks in New York City and Tulsa, and other disasters
similarly provided lessons for Florida. Emergency managers, public health offi cials,
private sector risk managers, and other professionals are increasingly applying the
lessons learned all over the United States, as well as in the rest of the world, to pre-
vent losses of life, property, and environmental quality. In perhaps lesser measure,
communities are being forced to adopt appropriate and effective land use, zoning,
and building regulation to reduce losses – or face legal liability for failures to act
responsibly to protect their residents. Also slowly, states and local governments are
having to consider their legal exposure when hazardous industries are not effec-
tively regulated to prevent accidental disasters. Recent failures to deal with known
hazards range from massive explosions to life-threatening air, ground, and water
contamination. Pressure is also increasing for community and state action to address
newly identifi ed hazards, including climate-related diseases affecting agriculture
and human beings. Florida offi cials have already noted the increasing incidence of
dengue fever and other mosquito-borne diseases.
C ommunities have become much more vulnerable as population density has
risen along the state’s Atlantic and Gulf coasts and in the Keys. The vulnerability of
the population has increased as well with infl uxes of retirees, agricultural workers,
international and domestic tourists, and part-time residents. The impacts on infra-
structure, the health-care system, the educational system, and social services are one
thing, but the additional stress on critical services during disasters is signifi cant. In
a low-tax state, essential services are fi scally strained even in the best of circum-
stances. What is changing is that the vulnerability of people, property, and the envi-
ronment is increasing. The impacts of climate change and sea level rise are already
being felt in terms of higher storm surges, even for relatively minor storms, and
higher wind speeds. While scientists are being careful about attributing those
increases to climate change, they have ample evidence that the increases are taking
place.
A s the annual estimates of tropical storms and hurricanes and the expected land-
falls are made, attention often shifts to Florida. State and local emergency manage-
ment agencies begin assessing capabilities and reviewing plans. They watch the
tropical disturbances developing off the coast of Africa and hope that one or more
of the disturbances will not become the next catastrophic disaster to strike along the
coast. Such is life in Florida and elsewhere on the Gulf and up the East coast.
Hurricane season is stressful, and it is a stress that emergency managers in Florida
are accustomed to.
Fortunately, the State of Florida has an exceptional emergency management sys-
tem. A major factor in that success has been the level of state support for local agen-
cies. State encouragement of locals to meet national standards and to seek Emergency
Management Accreditation Program (EMAP) accreditation has also been a factor.
The EMAP Standard focuses attention on the whole emergency management pro-
gram, including all stakeholders involved in disaster planning and operations, and
the development of a comprehensive program. Collaboration is critical. But, still,
Foreword ix
emergency management agencies in Florida and elsewhere in the United States have
uneven capabilities. Some are very professional and as prepared to deal with hurri-
canes and other hazards as they can be, while others are barely able to contend with
the everyday minor disasters caused by fi re and fl ood. Volunteers, nonprofi t organi-
zations, and private fi rms provide surge capacity and help fi ll in the gaps.
I t should be noted that changes are taking place in emergency management at the
policy level. The cavalry approach, relying on federal and state offi cials to provide
essential resources, is quickly shifting to a more self-suffi cient approach, asking
individuals, families, and communities to take more responsibility for their own
health and safety. There are a lot of reasons for the shift in policy and program,
including the expense of large-scale disaster operations and long-term recovery, but
the most important reason is that catastrophic disasters tax the capabilities of the
public, private, and nonprofi t sectors. As the Katrina and Sandy disasters demon-
strated, help may be slow in coming. Indeed, there may be catastrophic disasters in
which help may be weeks or months away and communities may have to take care
of themselves for a signifi cant length of time. The response to Hurricane Katrina
came together very slowly and overwhelmed state and local capabilities. Pandemics
can overwhelm even national capabilities, as the current Ebola crisis in West Africa
demonstrates. But major earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, tsunamis, and hurricanes
can sorely test emergency management capabilities at all levels. This is why the
emphasis in recent years has been on community resilience, making the community
less vulnerable and less reliant upon outside resources and enabling it to recover
quicker. The goal is to replace infrastructure and to make it less vulnerable to the
next storm in order to help communities fi nd a new normal. While there is still no
consensus on the defi nition of resilience, there is growing understanding of its key
elements.
I , too, keep an eye on the tropical disturbances as they form off the coast of
Africa. I watch as the storms move close to my mother’s home in Largo and pay
attention to the vulnerability of Largo and other communities around Tampa Bay. I
pay attention to the quality of the professional emergency managers hired by the
State of Florida and Pinellas County. I applaud the adoption of measures to reduce
risks in and around Largo and to make the community more resilient. This is more
than an intellectual exercise. It is a matter of preparedness for risks that might affect
my family and require quick action on my part.
Georgia State University William L. Waugh Jr. ,
Atlanta , GA , USA
