Table Of ContentD e
irect nergy
c
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t
echnologies
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D e
irect nergy
c
onversion
t
echnologies
r.K. s , P D
ingal h
&
M. t , P D, Pe
abatabaian h ng
(Faculty, British Columbia Institute of Technology)
MERCURY LEARNING AND INFORMATION
Dulles, Virginia
Boston, Massachusetts
New Delhi
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Reprint and Revision Copyright ©2020 by Mercury Learning and InforMation LLC. All rights reserved.
Original Copyright ©2018 by NEW AGE International Publishers.
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Publisher: David Pallai
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R. K. Singal and M. Tabatabaian. Direct Energy Conversion Technologies.
ISBN: 978-1-68392-453-1
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CONTENTS
Chapter 1: Energy Conversion Technologies 1
1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 Electricity Generation 1
1.2.1 Utility Plants or Central Power Plants 2
1.2.2 Captive Stand-Alone Power Plants 4
1.2.3 Cogeneration Plants 4
1.2.4 Autonomous Power Plants 6
1.2.5 Combined-Cycle Power Plants 6
1.3 Transport Energy 7
1.4 Limitations of Current Power Generation Systems 8
1.4.1 Carnot Limitation 8
1.4.2 Metallurgical Limitation 8
1.4.3 Mechanical Links and Plant Reliability 8
1.4.4 Ecological Balance 9
1.4.5 Plant Costs 9
1.4.6 Transmission and Distribution System 9
1.5 Direct Energy Conversion Systems 10
1.5.1 Fuel Cell 10
1.5.2 Solar-Cell Photovoltaic 10
1.5.3 Thermoelectric Power Units 11
1.5.4 Thermionic Converter 11
1.5.5 Magneto-Hydro-Dynamic Generator 12
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vi • Contents
Chapter 2: Solar Cells 13
2.1 Introduction 13
2.2 Photon Energy 13
2.2.1 Photon Flux 14
2.3 Solid-State Principles 16
2.3.1 Solid-State Phenomenon 16
2.3.2 Fermi Energy 16
2.3.3 Energy Distribution of Electron Gas 17
2.3.4 Fermi Energy Calculation 18
2.3.5 Behavior of Free Electrons 19
2.4 The Band Theory 19
2.4.1 Energy Bands for Different Materials 20
2.5 Semiconductors 21
2.5.1 Types of Semiconductors 21
2.6. p-n Junction 22
2.7 Theory of Solar Cells Photovoltaics 22
2.7.1 Types of Solar Cells 23
2.7.2 Operation of Cell 24
2.7.3 Performance Characteristics 24
2.7.4 Solar Energy Utilization 25
2.7.5 Solar Cell Efficiency and Losses 25
2.7.6 Methods of Increasing Cell Efficiency 26
2.8 Performance Analysis 27
2.9 Solar Cell Materials 29
2.9.1 Monocrystalline Silicon Solar Cells 29
2.9.2 Polycrystalline Silicon Solar Cell 31
2.9.3 Thin-Film Solar Cells 31
2.10 Solar Arrays 31
2.10.1 Solar Modules 31
2.10.2 Solar Array or Generator 32
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Contents • vii
2.11 Solar Cell Power Plants 33
2.11.1 Autonomous Solar Power Plants 33
2.11.2 Combined Solar-Wind-Diesel Power Plant 34
2.12 Energy Storage 35
2.13 Design of a Solar Power Plant 36
2.13.1 Size of Solar Array 37
2.13.2 Solar Panel Tilt 38
2.13.3 Storage Battery Capacity 38
2.14 Applications of Solar Photovoltaic Systems 40
2.14.1 Autonomous Power Systems 41
2.14.2 Central Power Generation 41
2.14.3 Solar Water Pumps 41
2.14.4 Space Satellite Power Station (SSPS) 42
2.15 Advantages of Photovoltaic Solar Systems 43
2.16 Limitations of Photovoltaic Solar Systems 43
Chapter 3: Fuel Cells 47
3.1 Introduction 47
3.2 H —O Fuel Cell 49
2 2
3.2.1 Principle of Operation 49
3.2.2 Performance Analysis 51
3.2.3 Performance Characteristics 53
3.2.4 Polarization in Fuel Cells 54
3.3 Types of Fuel Cells 60
3.3.1 Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cells (PEMFC) 62
3.3.2 Solid Oxide Fuel Cells (SOFC) 63
3.3.3 Alkaline Fuel Cells (AFC) 64
3.3.4 Molten Carbonate Fuel Cells (MCFC) 64
3.3.5 Direct Methanol Fuel Cell (DMFC) 64
3.3.6 Phosphoric Acid Fuel Cell (PAFC) 65
3.3.7 Regenerative Fuel Cells (RFC) 65
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viii • Contents
3.4 Applications of Fuel Cells 67
3.4.1 Central Power Generation 67
3.4.2 Cogeneration Units 71
3.4.3 Mobile Units for Automotive Vehicles 73
3.5 Advantages and Limitations of Fuel Cells 73
3.5.1 Advantages 73
3.5.2 Limitations 74
Chapter 4: Magneto-Hydrodynamic Power Generation 77
4.1 Introduction 77
4.2 Principle of Operations 78
4.3 Design Problems 81
4.3.1 Gas Velocity 81
4.3.2 Magnetic Flux Density 82
4.3.3 Gas Electrical Conductivity 82
4.3.4 MHD Duct 83
4.4 Thermodynamic Performance Analysis 83
4.5 Electrical Analysis 85
4.6 MHD Generator Efficiency 86
4.7 Open Cycle MHD Power Generation System 89
4.8 Closed Cycle MHD Power Generation System 90
4.8.1 Seeded Insert Gas System 91
4.8.2 Liquid Metal System 92
4.9 Hybridization of MHD Power Generator 92
4.10 Indian Experience 94
4.11 Advantages of an MHD Power Generator 95
4.12 Limitations of MHD Technology 95
Chapter 5: Thermoelectric Power Generation 97
5.1 Introduction 97
5.2 Thermoelectric Effects 99
5.2.1 Seebeck Effect 99
5.2.2 Peltier Effect 100
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Contents • ix
5.2.3 Thomson Effect 101
5.2.4 Joule Effect 101
5.2.5 Kelvin Relations 102
5.3 Principle of Operation of a Thermoelectric
Power Generator 103
5.4 Performance Analysis of Thermoelectric Generator 104
5.4.1 Figure of Merit 105
5.4.2 Maximum Power 106
5.5 Selection of Materials for Thermoelectric Generators 115
5.5.1 Metals 116
5.5.2 Semiconductors 116
5.5.3 High Temperature Semiconductors 117
5.6 Applications of Thermoelectric Generators 117
5.6.1 Thermopile and Cascading Operation 118
5.6.2 Combined Thermoelectric and
Steam Power Plant 118
5.6.3 Thermoelectric Waste Heat Stack 119
5.6.4 Decay Heat of Radioactive Isotopes 119
5.6.5 Solar Energy 119
5.7 Limitations 120
Chapter 6: Thermionic Power Generation 123
6.1 Introduction 123
6.2 Principle of Operation 124
6.2.1 Fermi Energy Level 125
6.3 Performance of Thermionic Generator 126
6.4 Applications of Thermionic Generator 130
6.4.1 Thermionic Generator in the Riser
Tube of a Boiler 130
6.4.2 Thermionic Generator in a Nuclear Reactor 131
6.4.3 MHD–Thermionic Generator-Steam
Power Plant 131
6.5 Limitations of a Thermionic Generator 132
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x • Contents
Chapter 7: Exploring New Energy Technologies 135
7.1 Introduction 135
7.2 Requirements of New Energy Technologies 135
7.3 Design Requirements 136
7.3.1 Collection System 137
7.3.2 Solar System Model 138
7.3.3 Optimum Task to Energy Level Match 139
7.4 Exergy Analysis of Energy Systems 139
7.4.1 Exergy Efficiency 140
7.4.2 Exergy Efficiency of Solar Collectors 140
7.5 Economic Evaluation of Energy Systems 142
7.5.1 Life-Cycle Costing Method 143
7.5.2 Net Cost-Saving Method 143
7.5.3 Net Benefit/Cost Ratio Method 143
7.6 Internal Rate of Return for Investment in
New Energy Technology 144
Chapter 8: Solar Thermal Energy 147
8.1 Introduction 147
8.2 Solar Radiation 148
8.2.1 Extraterrestrial Solar Radiation 148
8.2.2 Terrestrial Solar Radiation 149
8.3 Solar Radiation Geometry 150
8.3.1 Radiation Angles 150
8.3.2 Relationship among Solar Angles 151
8.3.3 Clearance Index 151
8.4 Measurement of Solar Radiations 152
8.5 Solar Collectors 153
8.5.1 Flat Plate Collectors 153
8.5.2 Concentrating Collectors 154
8.6 Flat Plate Collectors 155
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