Digital Image Processing: Concepts, Algorithms, and Scientific Applications

559 Pages·1997·16.663 MB·English

by  Professor Dr. Bernd Jähne (auth.)

Bernd Jahne
Digital Image Processing
Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg GmbH
Bernd Jahne
Digital
Image Processing
Concepts, Algorithms, and Scientific Applications
with 221 figures and CD-ROM
Springer
Professor Dr. Bernd Jiihne
Interdisziplinăres Zentrum
fiir Wissenschaftliches Rechnen (IWR)
Forschungsgruppe Bildverarbeitung
Universităt Heidelberg
Im Neuenheimer Feld 368
D-69120 Heidelberg
Bernd.]aehne@iwr. uni-heidelberg.de
http://www. iwr. uni-heidelberg.de
aund
Physical Oceanography Research Division
Scripps Institution of Oceanography
University of California, San Diego
La Jolla, CA 92093-0230, USA
ISBN 978-3-662-03479-8
Die deutsche Bibliothek -CIP Einheitsaufnahme
Digital image processing 1 Bernd Jiilme.
Dt. Ausg. u.d. T.:Digitale Bildverarbeitung
ISBN 978-3-662-03479-8 ISBN 978-3-662-03477-4 (eBook)
DOI 10.1007/978-3-662-03477-4
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© Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 1997
Origina11y published by Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg New York in 1997
Softcover reprint of the hardcover 4th edition 1997
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Preface to the Fourth Edition
In a fast developing area such as digital image processing a book that
appeared in its first edition in 1991 required a complete revision just six
years later. But what has not changed is the proven concept, offering a
systematic approach to digital image processing with the aid of concepts
and general principles also used in other areas of natural science. In this
way, a reader with a general background in natural science or an engi
neering discipline is given fast access to the complex subject of image
processing. The book covers the basics of image processing. Selected
areas are treated in detail in order to introduce the reader both to the
way of thinking in digital image processing and to some current research
topics. Whenever possible, examples and image material are used to il
lustrate basic concepts. It is assumed that the reader is familiar with
elementary matrix algebra and the Fourier transform.
The new edition contains four parts. Part 1 summarizes the basics
required for understanding image processing. Thus there is no longer
a mathematical appendix as in the previous editions. Part 2 on image
acquisition and preprocessing has been extended by a detailed discus
sion of image formation. Motion analysis has been integrated into Part
3 as one component of feature extraction. Object detection, object form
analysis, and object classification are put together in Part 4 on image
analysis.
Generally, this book is not restricted to 2-D image processing. Where
ever possible, the subjects are treated in such a manner that they are
also valid for higher-dimensional image data (volumetric images, image
sequences). Likewise, color images are considered as a special case of
multichannel images.
The most significant extension in the fourth edition is the accom
panying CD-ROM. The CD contains all the images and artwork of the
printed version (and more) as TIFF or encapsulated postscript (EPS) files
that can be read and displayed on almost any computer platform. The
CD-ROM also contains material in the Adobe PDF format. The directory
VI
Acroread on the CD contains PDF readers for different platforms. Unfor
tunately, only shortcuts are contained for the operating systems OS/2,
Windows 3.1, and Windows 95/NT. If you use one of these operating sys
tems, please make sure that you have installed an Adobe Acrobat reader
on your computer (http:// www.adobe.com) before you use the CD-ROM.
You can use the runtime version of the image processing software
heurisko to gather your own experience with many of the image oper
ations described in the book. The exercises are organized by chapter
and are referred to by corresponding numbers in the written text. The
image processing software heurisko on the CD runs under Windows 9 5
and Windows NT. A PC with at least a 486 processor is required.
I would like to thank all individuals and organizations that contributed
partly unpublished material for this book:
• Dr. ]. P. Burt, David Sarnoff Research Center, Princeton, New Jersey,
USA
• Dr.]. Dengler and Dr. M. Schmidt, Department of Medical and Biolog
ical Computer Science, German Cancer Research Center Heidelberg
• Dr. B. Schmitt und Prof. Dr. D. Komitowski, Department for Histodi
agnostics and Pathomorphological Documentation, German Cancer
Research Center Heidelberg
• Dr. ]. Steurer, Institute for Communications Technology, Technical
University Munich
• Dr. R. Eils, P. GeiBler, Dr. H. HauBecker, Dr. F. Hering, M. Lell, Dr. T.
Miinsterer, U. Schimpf, D. Schmundt, Dr. T. Scholz, Interdisciplinary
Center for Scientific Computing, University of Heidelberg
• G. Balschbach, Institute for Environmental Physics, University of Hei
delberg
• Dr. U. Schurr, Institute for Botany, University of Heidelberg
• Dr.]. Klinke and]. Dieter, Physical Oceanography Research Division,
Scripps Institution of Oceanography, University of California, San
Diego
• Dr. T. Scheuermann, Fraunhofer Institute for Chemical Engineering
(ICT), Pfinztal
• ELTEC Elektronik GmbH, Mainz
• Dr. Klee, Hoechst AG, Frankfurt
• Stemmer Imaging GmbH, Puchheim
• Dr. ]. Weickert, Imaging Center Utrecht, Utrecht University Hospital,
Utrecht
VII
• Carl Zeiss Jena GmbH, Jena
• Dr. G. Zinser, Heidelberg Engineering, Optische MeEsysteme GmbH,
Heidelberg
I would also like to express my sincere thanks to the staff of Springer
Verlag for their constant interest in this book and their professional
advice. Special thanks are due to my friends at AEON Verlag & Studio,
Hanau, Germany. Without their dedicated and professional help it would
not have been possible to produce this book and the accompanying CD
ROM.
Finally, I would like to thank all readers in advance for their com
ments on improvements or additions. Likewise, I am grateful for hints
on errors, omissions, or typing errors, which, despite all the care taken,
may have slipped attention.
Heidelberg, May 199 7 Bernd Jahne
From the preface of the first edition
Digital image processing is a fascinating subject in several aspects. Hu
man beings perceive most of the information about their environment
through their visual sense. While for a long time images could only be
captured by photography, we are now at the edge of another techno
logical revolution which allows image data to be captured, manipulated,
and evaluated electronically with computers. With breathtaking pace,
computers are becoming more powerful and at the same time less ex
pensive, so that widespread applications for digital image processing
emerge. In this way, image processing is becoming a tremendous tool to
analyze image data in all areas of natural science. For more and more
scientists digital image processing will be the key to study complex sci
entific problems they could not have dreamed to tackle only a few years
ago. A door is opening for new interdisciplinary cooperations merging
computer science with the corresponding research areas.
Many students, engineers, and researchers in all natural sciences are
faced with the problem of needing to know more about digital image
processing. This book is written to meet this need. The author - him
self educated in physics - describes digital image processing as a new
tool for scientific research. The book starts with the essentials of image
processing and leads - in selected areas - to the state-of-the art. This
approach gives an insight as to how image processing really works. The
selection of the material is guided by the needs of a researcher who wants
to apply image processing techniques in his or her field. In this sense,
VIII
this book tries to offer an integral view of image processing from im
age acquisition to the extraction of the data of interest. Many concepts
and mathematical tools which find widespread application in natural
sciences are also applied in digital image processing. Such analogies are
pointed out, since they provide an easy access to many complex prob
lems in digital image processing for readers with a general background
in natural sciences. The discussion of the general concepts is supple
mented with examples from applications on PC -based image processing
systems and ready-to-use implementations of important algorithms.
I am deeply indebted to the many individuals who helped me to write
this book. I do this by tracing its history. In the early 1980s, when I
worked on the physics of small-scale air-sea interaction at the Institute of
Environmental Physics at Heidelberg University, it became obvious that
these complex phenomena could not be adequately treated with point
measuring probes. Consequently, a number of area extended measuring
techniques were developed. Then I searched for techniques to extract
the physically relevant data from the images and sought for colleagues
with experience in digital image processing. The first contacts were es
tablished with the Institute for Applied Physics at Heidelberg University
and the German Cancer Research Center in Heidelberg. I would like to
thank Prof. Dr. J. Bille, Dr. J. Dengler and Dr. M. Schmidt cordially for
many eye-opening conversations and their cooperation.
Then I contacted the faculty for computer science at Karlsruhe Uni
versity and the Fraunhofer Institute for Information and Data Processing
in Karlsruhe. I learnt a great deal from the course of Prof. Dr. H.-H. Nagel
and Dr. R. Kories on "Algorithmic Interpretation of Image Sequences"
that I attended in the summer term 1986.
I would also like to thank Prof. Dr. K. 0. Miinnich, director of the
Institute for Environmental Physics. From the beginning, he was open
minded about new ideas to apply digital image processing techniques in
environmental physics. It is due to his farsightedness and substantial
support that the research group "Digital Image Processing in Environ
mental Physics" could develop so fruitfully at his institute. Many of the
examples shown in this book are taken from my research at Heidelberg
University and the Scripps Institution of Oceanography. I gratefully ac
knowledge financial support for this research from the German Science
Foundation, the European Community, the US National Science Founda
tion, and the US Office of Naval Research.
La Jolla, California and Heidelberg, spring 1991 Bernd Jahne
Contents
Foundation 1
1 Applications and Tools 3
1.1 Digital Image Processing -
A Rapidly Expanding Research Tool . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.2 Examples of Scientific Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.2.1 Counting and Gauging of Particles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.2.2 Small-Scale Air-Sea Interaction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.2.3 Optical Surface Profiling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.3 Hierarchy of Image Processing Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.4 Image Processing and Computer Graphics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
1.5 Human and Computer Vision . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
1.6 Components of an Image Processing System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
1.6.1 Image Sensors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
1.6.2 Frame Grabber and Image Display . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
1.6.3 Computer Hardware for Fast Image Processing. . . . . . . . . . . . 21
1.6.4 Software and Algorithms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
2 Image Representation 2 7
2.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
2.2 Spatial Representation of Digital Images . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
2.2.1 Pixel and Voxel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
2.2.2 Neighborhood Relations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
2.2.3 Discrete Geometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
2.2.4 Quantization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
2.2.5 Signed Representation of Images. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
2.2.6 Luminance Perception of the Human Visual System. . . . . . . . . 36
2.3 Wave Number Space and Fourier Transform . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
2.3.1 Vector Spaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
2.3.2 One-Dimensional Discrete Fourier Transform (DFT). . . . . . . . . 40
2.3.3 Two-Dimensional DFT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
2.3.4 Important Fourier Transform Pairs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
2.3.5 Periodicity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
2.3.6 Symmetry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
2.3. 7 Dynamic Range of the DFT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
2.3.8 Phase and Amplitude . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
2.4 Discrete Unitary Transforms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
2.4.1 General Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
X CONTENTS
2.4.2 Cosine and Sine Transform . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
2.4.3 Hadamard Transform . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
2.4.4 Haar Transform . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
2.5 Fast Algorithms for Unitary Transforms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
2.5.1 Importance of Fast Algorithms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
2.5.2 The 1-D Radix-2 FFT Algorithms .................... . 60
2.5.3 Radix-4 Decimation-in-Time FFT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
2.5.4 Radix-2 Decimation-in-Frequency FFT ................. . 67
2.5.5 Measures for Fast Algorithms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
2.5.6 Multidimensional FFT Algorithms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
2.5.7 Transformation of Real Images . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
3 Statistics and Models 73
3 .1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
3.2 Random Variables ............................... . 75
3.2.1 Probability Density Functions and Histograms ........... . 75
3.2.2 Mean and Variance ............................. . 76
3.2.3 Central Moments .............................. . 77
3.2.4 Normal and Binomial Distribution ................... . 77
3.3 Correlation and Spectra ............................ . 78
3.3.1 Random Fields ................................ . 78
3.3.2 Correlations and Covariances ...................... . 79
3.3.3 Spectra and Coherence .......................... . 81
3.3.4 Error Propagation .............................. . 82
3.4 Models ....................................... . 83
3.4.1 Introduction ................................. . 83
3.4.2 Discrete Inverse Problems ........................ . 86
3.4.3 Least Squares Solution of Overdetermined Linear
Inverse Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
3.4.4 Hough Transform .............................. . 90
3.4.5 Iterative Solution of Huge Sparse Equation Systems ........ . 91
3.4.6 Variation Calculus ............................. . 93
4 Neighborhood Operations 97
4.1 Combining Pixels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
4.2 Convolution Filters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
4.2.1 Definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
4.2.2 Point Spread Function and Transfer Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
4.2.3 Computation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 100
4.2.4 Recursive Filters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
4.2.5 Relaxation Filters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
4.2.6 Resonance Filters .............................. . 105
4.3 Rank Value Filtering .............................. . 108
4.3.1 Definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
4.3.2 Basic Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
4.4 Linear Shift-Invariant Filters ......................... . 109
4.4.1 Filters as Operators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
4.4.2 Linearity .................................... . 111
4.4.3 Shift Invariance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
4.4.4 Convolution, Linearity, and Shift Invariance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113