Diamond electrochemistry

595 Pages·2005·21.63 MB·English

by  Akira Fujishima

Preface
It has been nearly ten years since we began to build an international
consortium in the area of diamond electrochemistry, with our First
International Mini-Symposium, held in Tokyo in 1997. Since that time,
we have tried to keep this tradition going. In addition, there have been
International Symposia on Diamond Materials every two years, held
under the auspices of the Electrochemical Society, with a strong
complement of presentations in the area of electrochemical apphcations
of conductive diamond. These symposia, together with others, such as
the European Conferences on Diamond and Diamond-Like Materials
and the International Conferences on New Diamond Science and
Technology, held in the Eastern Hemisphere, have kept this field
growing at a rapid rate. Almost every aspect of electrochemistry has
been impacted by the diamond electrode, from electroanalysis to
electrolysis.
Recently also, the field has started to mature, with the
development of many practical apphcations of diamond electrodes.
Some of these are being commercialized at present. Two examples are
the diamond electrochemical detector for liquid chromatography and
the large-scale diamond electrode for industrial wastewater treatment.
For the present volume, we have invited representatives fi^om
nearly every group in the world that has been active in the field, and
we are very pleased that many of these groups have responded with
chapters devoted to both their own work as well as that of others.
VI
Certainly we realize that it is virtually impossible to capture
everything that is going on in any given field at a particular time, but
our group of authors has tried hard to accompUsh the impossible.
In Chapter 1, Rao, et al., have provided a historical introduction
to the area, which got its start in 1983 in Japan in a pubUcation by
Iwaki et al. In Chapter 2, Ivandini, et al., provide fiirther historical
perspective and introduce the basics of the preparation and
characterization of chemical vapor-deposited (CVD) diamond films. In
Chapter 3, Martin, et al., discuss several fimdamental aspects of
diamond electrochemistry, including the large working potential range
("wide potential window"), aspects of the reactivity, the optical
transparency, semiconductor aspects, and the surface conductivity
phenomenon. In Chapter 4, Pleskov gives a fuU account of the
semiconductor aspects of diamond electrochemistry. In Chapter 5,
Levy-Clement focuses on the role of the boron doping level in
determining the electrochemical properties, together with Raman
spectroscopy as a useful diagnostic tool in estimating the effective
doping level. In Chapter 6, Yoshimura et al. examine the factors that
determine the potential working range for various non-aqueous
solvent/electrolyte systems, including theoretical molecular orbital
calculations. In Chapter 7, Yagi, et al., examine the use of a novel
technique, time-of-flight electron-stimulated desorption, as a means of
understanding the interactions of the diamond surface with hydrogen,
the most important of the surface terminations. In Chapter 8, Kondo,
et al., examine the electrochemistry of single-crystaMike homoepitaxial
diamond films, particularly as nearly ideal electrodes for
electroanalytical apphcations. In Chapter 9, Tryk, et al., review the
various techniques available for the chemical modification of the
Preface vii
diamond surface, including ways of attaching DNA strands. In
Chapter 10, Notsu, et al., focus on the oxidized diamond surface, which
is the most common form of chemically modified diamond surface. In
Chapter 11, Einaga, et al., present several different ways of producing
functional diamond surfaces, including diamond microelectrode arrays,
diamond surfaces ion-implanted with metals to impart catalytic
activity, and ultrasmooth diamond surfaces produced by the glow
discharge technique. In Chapter 13, Spataru, et al., focus on the
advantages of the diamond electrode for the oxidative determination of
various types of biologically active compounds. In Chapter 14, Shin, et
al., discuss the use of the boron-diamond electrode as a detector for
capiUary zone eletrophoresis, which is quickly becoming a powerful
technique for the detection of a number of different types of compound
mixtures, for example, explosives, as well as biologically active
compounds such as neurotransmitters. In Chapter 15, Orawon, et al.,
discuss the use of diamond electrodes for the determination of the
biologically important suLfur-containing compounds. In Chapter 16,
Manivannan, et al., examine the diamond electrode for use in the
detection of trace concentrations of toxic metals. In Chapter 17,
Suryanarayanan, et al., examine several diverse examples of analytical
apphcations of boron-doped diamond electrodes for industrially
important chemicals. In Chapter 18, Ohvia, et al., present the topic of
boron-doped diamond microelectrodes, which are highly interesting
and analytically useful, because they combine the advantages of
diamond with those of the microelectrode, including efficient mass
transport. In Chapter 19, Honda and Fujishima discuss the highly
interesting nanotextured diamond surfaces, along with possible
apphcations of such electrodes. In Chapter 20, ComnineUis, et al..
Vlll
discuss the use of hydroxyl radicals generated at the diamond surface
to carry out various types of oxidation reactions, including
electrosynthetic processes, and the electrochemical "combustion" of
organic compounds. In Chapter 21, Vatistas, et al., examine a highly
useful approach to the use of diamond for wastewater treatment, i.e.,
involving the electrogeneration of hydroxyl radicals, followed by the
reaction of these radicals with inorganic ions such as sulfate to produce
active oxidants, circumventing the mass transport problems associated
with the direct reaction of hydroxyl radicals with pollutants. In
Chapter 22, Cho, et al., focus on the use of diamond electrodes for the
electrogeneration of ozone, which is an important oxidant and potential
replacement for chlorine. In Chapter 23, Furuta, et al., provide a very
interesting account of the practical use of diamond electrodes in
ordinary tap water to produce oxidants that are capable of destroying
the bacteria that cause Legionnaires' Disease. In Chapter 24, Arihara
and Fujishima provide an additional account of how diamond
electrodes, specifically, free-standing ones, can be used successfully to
produce ozone-water, which is an environmentally fidendly decolorizing
and antibacterial agent. Finally, in Chapter 25, Rao, et al., provide a
summary and perspective on the fundamental and apphed aspects of
diamond electrodes.
Lastly, we would very much hke to acknowledge the great
contribution of Dr. Ivandini Tribidasari in assembhng this volume,
which could not have been completed otherwise.
Akira Fujishima
IX
The Editors
Professor Akira Fujishima
Professor Fujishima was born in 1942 in Tokyo. He
received his Ph. D. in AppHed Chemistry at the
University of Tokyo in 1971. He taught at Kanagawa
University for four years and then moved to the
University of Tokyo, where he became a Professor in
1986. In 2003, he retired from this position and took on
the position of Chairman at the Kanagawa Academy of
Science and Technology. His main interests are in photocatalysis,
photoelectrochemistry and diamond electrochemistry.
[Kanagawa Academy of science and Technology, KSP 3-2-1 Sakado, Kawasaki
213-0012, Japan, E-mail- [email protected]]
Professor Yasuaki Einaga
Professor Einaga was born in Niigata Prefecture,
Japan in 1971. He received his Ph.D degree in 1999
from The University of Tokyo under the direction of
Prof. Akira Fujishima. He joined the Department of
Chemistry at Keio University as an Assistant
Professor in 2001. In 2003, he was promoted to
Associate Professor. His research interests include
photo-functional materials science and diamond electrochemistry.
[Department of Chemistry, Keio University, 3-14-1 Hiyoshi, Yokohama 223-
8522, Japan, E-mail- [email protected]]
Dr. Tata Narasinga Rao
Dr. Rao was born in India in 1963. He received his
Ph.D. degree in 1994 from Banaras Hindu Unversity,
India. After working at IIT Madras, he moved to The
University of Tokyo as a JSPS Postdoctoral Fellow
and became an Assistant Professor in 2001. Presently,
he is a senior scientist at the International Advanced
Research Centre for Powder Metallurgy and New
Materials (ARCI) in Hyderabad, India. His research interests include
diamond electrochemistry, nanomaterials synthesis and their applications for
environmental remediation.
[International Advanced Research Centre for Powder Metallurgy and New
Materials. Balapur PO, Hyderabad 500005, India, E-mail : tatanrao@yahoo.
com]
Dr. Donald A. Tryk
Dr. Donald Tryk was born in California (USA) in 1948
and received his Ph. D. in Chemistry from the
University of New Mexico in 1980. He was with the
Yeager Center for Electrochemical Sciences at Case
Western Reserve University in Ohio (USA) before
joining Prof. Fujishima's group in 1995. After two
2^^^ years at Tokyo Metropolitan University, he is now at
the University of Puerto Rico. His interests are diamond electrochemistry
and electrocatalysis.
[Department of Chemistry, University of Puerto Rico, Rio Piedras Campus,
San Juan, Puerto Rico 00931-3346, E-mail •' [email protected]]
Special Thanks for Contribution
Dr. Ivandini Tribidasari Anggraningrum
Dr. Ivandini was born in Indonesia in 1970 and received her
Ph. D. from the University of Tokyo in 2003. She is a
lecturer in the Department of Chemistry, Mathematics and
Science Faculty, University of Indonesia in Jakarta,
Indonesia. Now, she is doing post-doctoral research
supported by a JSPS award at the Department of Chemistry,
Keio University, Japan. Her interest is in diamond
electrochemistry.
XI
List of Authors
John. C. Angus
Case Western Reserve University, USA
Kazuki Arihara
Central Japan Railway Company, Japan
Oraw^on Chailapakul
Chulalongkorn University, Thailand
Eun-In Cho
Chungbuk National University, Korea
Christos Comninellis
Swiss Federal Institute of Technology, Switzerland
Ilaria Duo
Swiss Federal Institute of Technology, Switzerland
Sally C. Eaton
Case Western Reserve University, USA
Yasuaki Einaga
Keio University, Japan
Akira Fujishima
Kanagawa Academy of science and Technology, Japan
Tsuneto Furuta
Permelec Electrode Ltd., Japan
Werner Haenni
Centre Suisse d'Electronique et de Microtechnique SA (CSEM),
Switzerland
Olivia Herlambang
Canon Inc., Japan
Kensuke Honda
Yamaguchi University, Japan
Tribidasari A. Ivandini
University of Indonesia, Indonesia
Takeshi Kondo
Tokyo University of Science, Japan
Uziel Landau
Xll
Case Western Reserve University, USA
Claude LevyClement
CNRS, France
Ayyakannu Manivannan
West Virginia University, USA
Beatrice Marselli
Swiss Federal Institute of Technology, Switzerland
Heidi B. Martin
Case Western Reserve University, USA
Hideki Masuda
Tokyo Metropolitan University, Japan
Pierre "Alain Michaud
Swiss Federal Institute of Technology, Switzerland
Yoshinori Nishiki
Permelec Electrode Ltd., Japan
Hideo Notsu
The University of Tokyo, Japan
Soo-Gil Park
Chungbuk National University, Korea
Su-Moon Park
Pohang University of Science &; Technology, Korea
Jong-Eun Park
Chungbuk National University, Korea
Gebriele Prosper!
University of Pisa, Italy
Yuri V. Pleskov
Frumkin Institute of Electrochemistry, Russia
Laurent Pupunat
Centre Suisse d'Electronique et de Microtechnique SA (CSEM),
Switzerland
Tata N. Rao
International Advanced Research Centre for Powder Metallurgy and
New Materials, India
Philippe Rychen
Centre Suisse d'Electronique et de Microtechnique SA (CSEM),
Switzerland
List of Authors xiii
Bulusu V. Sarada
The University of Tokyo, Japan
Roberto Massahiro Serikawa
Ebara Research Co. Ltd., Japan
Dongchan Shin
National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology,
Japan
Nicolae Spataru
Institute of Physical Chemistry of the Roumanian Academy, Romania
Vembu Suryanarayanan
Utsunomiya University, Japan
Hozumi Tanaka
Permelec Electrode Ltd., Japan
Tetsu Tatsuma
The University of Tokyo, Japan
Chiaki Terashima
GL Sciences Inc., Japan
Donald A. Tryk
University of Puerto Rico, Puerto Rico
Kazuyuki Ueda
Hokkaido University, Japan
Kohei Uosaki
Hokkaido University, Japan
Nicolaos Vatistas
University of Pisa, Italy
Joseph Wang
New Mexico State University, USA
Ichizo Yagi
Hokkaido University, Japan
Sachio Yoshihara
Utsunomiya University, Japan
Mikiko Yoshimura
Matsushita Electric Industrial Co. Ltd., Japan
Yanrong Zhang
Utsunomiya University, Japan
1. Historical Survey of Diamond
Electrodes
Tata N. Rao, Akira Fujishima and John C. Angus
1.1. Introduction
Conductive boron-doped diamond is an alternative to traditional
carbon electrodes that provides superior chemical and dimensional
stability, low background currents, and a very wide potential
window of water stability (Fig. l.l). In this Chapter we describe
the historical development of these unique electrodes.
Traditional carbon electrodes, such as glassy carbon, carbon
fiber, carbon cloth, carbon nanotubes, various forms of disordered
carbon, and graphite are important in electrochemistry because of
low cost, simple preparation methods, possibility of achieving
large surface area, and a relatively wide potential window of
water stability. They have many applications, ranging from Li-ion
batteries and double layer capacitors to electrochemical sensors.
Carbon also plays an important role in fuel cells as a substrate for
dispersal of a small amount of precious metal catalyst over a large
area. Despite their advantages, traditional carbon electrodes still
suffer drawbacks. For example, electrode fouling limits their long
term stability and leads to frequent polishing or disposal of the
electrode after a few uses. The limited potential window for water
Tata N. Rao e-mail: [email protected]