Development and Reproduction in Humans and Animal Model Species

723 Pages·2015·39.74 MB·English

by  Werner A. Mueller

Werner A. Mueller
Monika Hassel
Maura Grealy
Development
and Reproduction
in Humans and Animal Model Species
Development and Reproduction in
Humans and Animal Model Species
ThiSisaFMBlankPage
Werner A. Mueller (cid:129) Monika Hassel (cid:129)
Maura Grealy
Development and
Reproduction in
Humans and Animal
Model Species
WernerA.Mueller MonikaHassel
CentreofOrganismalStudies SpezielleZoologie
UniversityofHeidelberg Universita¨tMarburgFBBiologie
Germany Marburg
Germany
MauraGrealy
PharmacologyandTherapeutics
NationalUniversityofIrelandGalway
Galway
Ireland
Translationfromthe5thGermanlanguageedition'Entwicklungsbiologieund
ReproduktionsbiologiedesMenschenundbedeutenderModellorganismen'Springer
Spektrum,©Springer-VerlagBerlinHeidelberg2012;ISBN:978-3-642-28382-6
ISBN978-3-662-43783-4 ISBN978-3-662-43784-1(eBook)
DOI10.1007/978-3-662-43784-1
SpringerHeidelbergNewYorkDordrechtLondon
LibraryofCongressControlNumber:2014958295
#Springer-VerlagBerlinHeidelberg2015
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Preface
This book is written and designed for students of the biological sciences,
undergraduates and graduates and for all those geneticists, biochemists,
physicians, teachers and science journalists who are looking for a coherent
and readily understandable description of human embryonic development
andofthedevelopmentofimportantanimalmodelorganisms.Thisbookis
not a collection of review articles composed for professional researches,
although we consulted many current bibliographic databases and recent
original publications. After an introduction into basic terms we choose an
outlinedifferentfromtheorganizationchoseninothertextbooks.
Longexperienceasteachersandresearcherswhoareinterestedalsointhe
findings obtained in other organisms tells us that nobody reads a textbook
fromthefirsttothelastpagewithoutomittingthisorthatchapter.Tocomply
withtheactualdemandsofreaderswefirstgiveacomprehensivedescription
ofthemostimportantmodelspeciesincludingexperimentalfindings,andof
thehumanembryo.Thisrelievesthereadersfromhavingtoreconstructthe
complete development of, let’s say, Drosophila or Xenopus by gathering
together sections and figures scattered over several chapters. Thereafter
comparativeaccountsaregiventogeneraltopicssuchas,forexample,sexual
development,theconstructionoftransgenicanimals,thedevelopmentofthe
nervoussystem,stemcellresearchandtheevolutionofdevelopment.
Thisconcept,however,madeitnecessarytorepeatthisorthatstatement.
Thereaderwillprofitfromthisconceptinthat(almost)everychaptercanbe
readseparatelywithoutfirstconsultingotherchapters.
Separateboxesaredevotedtospecialareasintheperipherysuchas
(cid:129) Fromthesoultoinformation:Thehistoryofthedevelopmentalbiology
(cid:129) Prenataldiagnostics
(cid:129) Disturbancesofhumansexualdevelopment
(cid:129) Geneticandmolecularmethodsusedintheanalysisofdevelopment
(cid:129) Unsolvedriddles:Primordialmouthandthedirectionofthebodyaxes
(cid:129) Onlythreegermlayers?
For didactic reasons all figures were drawn not by professional graphic
artists butby one ofus (WM). These, the general outline, special areas and
emphasisonhumandevelopmentareuniquecharacteristicsofthistextbook.
Theliteraturelistattheendofthebookdoesnotonlycontainreferencesbut
v
vi Preface
also further reading. This 6th edition is a translated and updated version of
the5thGermanedition.
Wearegratefultoallthosecolleagueswhogaveushelpfulcommentsand
to the Springer editorial staff, in particular to Miss Anette Lindqvist and
AnetteSchneider.
Heidelberg,Germany WernerA.Mueller
Marburg,Germany MonikaHassel
Galway,Ireland MauraGrealy
Contents
1 DevelopmentandReproduction:AnIntroduction. . . . . . . . . 1
1.1 DevelopmentasSelf-Construction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 Reproduction:SexVersusNaturalCloning. . . . . . . . . . 4
2 StagesandPrinciplesofAnimalDevelopment:
TermsofDevelopmentalBiology. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
2.1 StagesofDevelopmentinOverview. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
2.2 GeneralPrinciplesinShort. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
3 TheStart:Fertilization,ActivationoftheEggandaFirst
SeriesofCellDivisions(Cleavage). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
3.1 Fertilization. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
3.2 ActivationoftheEgg. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
3.3 Non-ChromosomalSourcesofInformation. . . . . . . . . . 48
3.4 CleavageandtheMPFOscillator. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
4 ModelOrganismsinDevelopmentalBiologyI:
Invertebrates. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
4.1 Seaurchin:BasicModelofAnimalDevelopment
inGeneralandSubjectofHistoricallyImportant
Experiments. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
4.2 AnOutsider:Dictyosteliumdiscoideum. . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
4.3 TheImmortalHydraandFurtherCnidaria,andthe
DawnofModernExperimentalBiologyandStem
CellResearch. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
4.4 Caenorhabditiselegans,ExampleofInvariant
CellLineages. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
4.5 Spiralians:ARecurringCleavagePattern. . . . . . . . . . . 90
4.6 Drosophila:StilltheModelofReferenceinGenetic
andMolecularDevelopmentalBiology. . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
4.7 Tunicates:OftenQuotedasanExampleof‘Mosaic
Development’inthePhylumofChordates. . . . . . . . . . 118
5 DevelopmentofImportantModelSpeciesII:Vertebrates. . . 123
5.1 Xenopus:StandardofReferenceforVertebrate
Development. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
5.2 FavoriteAsianFishes:TheZebrafishDaniorerio
andMedakaOryciaslatipes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
vii
viii Contents
5.3 Amniotes:Chick,QuailandChimaerasofBoth. . . . . . . 152
5.4 TheMouse:AProxyforHumans. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
6 TheHuman. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
6.1 HumanEmbryosandModelOrganisms. . . . . . . . . . . . 169
6.2 FromPrimordialGermCellsuptoFertilization. . . . . . . 170
6.3 FromFertilizationuptothePhylotypicStage. . . . . . . . 171
6.4 InterfaceMother/Child:ThePlacenta. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
6.5 HormonalRelationsBetweenChildandMother. . . . . . 186
6.6 ComparativeReview:ThePhylotypicStageof
Vertebrates,CommonVersusDistinctFeatures,
AspectsofEvolution. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198
6.7 ConservativePathsVersusNovelties. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204
7 InPreparationforNewLifeI:SexDetermination
andSexualDevelopment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215
7.1 TheEssenceofSexuality. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215
7.2 Sex-DeterminingSystemsandGenes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216
7.3 EarlySexualDevelopmentofMammalsandHumans. . . 220
7.4 ThePsychologicalSexandPostnatalSexual
Development. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229
8 InPreparationforNewLifeII:Gametogenesis–The
DevelopmentofEggCellsandSpermandTheir
ProvisionwithHeritableReserves. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241
8.1 GermLineandPrimordialGermCells. . . . . . . . . . . . . 241
8.2 Oogenesis:ManufacturingandProvisioningofthe
EggCell. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247
8.3 Spermatogenesis:TheSperm,aGenomewithaMotor... 253
8.4 AnInvisibleInheritance:ImprintedMethylation
PatternsfromFatherandMother. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 254
8.5 GeneticConsequencesoftheSoma:GermLine
Segregation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256
9 SpecificationofBodyAxesandLocalizedFateAllotment
byExternalandMaternalCues. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259
9.1 StartofDifferentiationProgramsinAccordance
withPosition. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259
9.2 DefiningtheBody’sCoordinates. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260
9.3 EarlyCommitmentofCellTypesbyMaternalFactors. . 266
9.4 AutonomousVersusDependentDevelopment,
AsymmetricCellDivisionVersusCellInteractions. . . . 267
10 PositionalInformation,EmbryonicInductionandPattern
FormationbyCell-Cell-Communication. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271
10.1 PositionalInformationandGenerationof
NewPatterns. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271
10.2 PatternFormationbyExchangeofSignalBetween
AdjacentCells:LateralInhibitionandLateralHelp. . . . 273
10.3 EmbryonicInductionandtheSpemannOrganizer. . . . . 276
Contents ix
10.4 CascadesofInductionandIdentificationofthe
SignalMolecules. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281
10.5 PatternFormation,MorphogensandGradientTheory. . . 288
10.6 ToHaveOne’sHeartintheRightPlace:Left-Right-
Asymmetries. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 292
10.7 MorphogeneticFields. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 296
10.8 TheAvianWingasaModelLimb. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299
10.9 PatternControlandPositionalMemoryinHydra. . . . . . 304
10.10 PatternCorrectionbyIntercalation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 313
10.11 PeriodicPatterns. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 315
11 ControllingSignals,SignalPropagationandSignal
Transduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 323
11.1 SignallingSystemsandMechanismsofSignal
Propagation:AnOverview. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 323
11.2 HowCellsCommunicate:SignalTransmissionand
Propagation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 331
11.3 SignallingMoleculesandAssociatedTransduction
Systems. . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . .. . . 340
11.4 LipophilicSignallingSubstancesandControl
ofGeneActivities. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 348
12 DevelopmentandGenes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 353
12.1 DifferentialGeneExpressionastheBasis
ofDifferentiation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 379
12.2 GenesforSpecificationofBodyRegionsandOrgans:
TheHoxGenes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 385
12.3 GenesforProgrammingEyesandCellTypes. . . . . . . . 393
12.4 IrreversibleAlterationsoftheGenomeandof
Cell-Type-SpecificGeneticPrograms. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 409
13 Application-OrientedExperimentswithEarlyVertebrate
Embryos:Cloning,TransgenicAnimals. . .. . . . . .. . . . . .. . 415
13.1 Cloning,theProductionofIdenticalCopies. . . . . . . . . 415
13.2 ChimerasandTeratomas. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 422
13.3 GeneticManipulationofEmbryos,Knockout
MutantsandTransgenicAnimals. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 424
14 Morphogenesis:ShapingbyActiveCellMovement,
DifferentialCellAdhesionandCellDeath. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 433
14.1 ActiveCellMovementandMigration. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 433
14.2 SlidingandSortingbyVirtueofCellAdhesion. . . . . . . 434
14.3 CellAdhesionMoleculesandCellRecognition. . . . . . . 436
14.4 FormationofCurvedSheetsandofBranching
TubularStructures. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 438
14.5 ShapingbyCellRemoval:Apoptosis,The
ProgrammedCellDeath. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 440