Table Of ContentThe Common Core State Standards
for English Language Arts
In addition, Common Core State Standard marginal icons are located throughout the text.
New Literacies Speaking/Listening
College and Career Readiness Anchor Standards for Reading:
Literature and Informational Text Chapters
Key Ideas and Details
1. Read closely to determine what the text says explicitly and to make logical inferences from it; cite 8, 9, 12, 13
specific textual evidence when writing or speaking to support conclusions drawn from the text.
2. Determine central ideas or themes of a text and analyze their development; summarize the key 8, 9, 12, 13
supporting details and ideas.
3. Analyze how and why individuals, events, and ideas develop and interact over the course of a text. 8, 9, 12, 13
Craft and Structure
4. Interpret words and phrases as they are used in a text, including determining technical, 4, 7, 8, 9
connotative, and figurative meanings, and analyze how specific word choices shape meaning
or tone.
5. Analyze the structure of texts, including how specific sentences, paragraphs, and larger portions 4, 5, 8, 9
of the text (e.g., a section, chapter, scene, or stanza) relate to each other and the whole.
6. Assess how point of view or purpose shapes the content and style of a text. 8, 9
Integration of Knowledge and Ideas
7. Integrate and evaluate content presented in diverse media and formats, including visually and 8, 9
quantitatively, as well as in words. Icons throughout
8. Delineate and evaluate the argument and specific claims in a text, including the validity of the 8, 9
reasoning as well as the relevance and sufficiency of the evidence.
9. Analyze how two or more texts address similar themes or topics in order to build knowledge or 8, 9
to compare the approaches the authors take.
Range of Reading and Level of Text Complexity
10. Read and comprehend complex literary and informational texts independently and proficiently. 5, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14
College and Career Readiness Anchor Standards for Reading:
Foundational Skills Chapters
Print Concepts
1. Demonstrate understanding of the organization and basic features of print. 4, 5
Phonological Awareness
2. Demonstrate understanding of spoken words, syllables, and sounds. 3, 4, 5
Phonics and Word Knowledge
3. Know and apply grade-level phonics and word analysis skills in decoding words. 3, 5
Fluency
4. Read with sufficient accuracy and fluency to support comprehension. 3, 6
College and Career Readiness Anchor Standards for Writing Chapters
Text Types and Purposes
1. Write arguments to support claims in an analysis of substantive topics or texts, using valid 5, 8, 9, 12, 13
reasoning and relevant and sufficient evidence.
2. Write informative/explanatory texts to examine and convey complex ideas and information clearly 5, 8, 9, 12, 13
and accurately through the effective selection, organization, and analysis of content.
3. Write narratives to develop real or imagined experiences or events using effective technique, well- 5, 8, 12, 13
chosen details, and well-structured event sequences.
Production and Distribution of Writing
4. Produce clear and coherent writing in which the development, organization, and style are 3, 5, 6, 8, 9
appropriate to task, purpose, and audience.
5. Develop and strengthen writing as needed by planning, revising, editing, rewriting, or trying a new 3, 8, 12, 13
approach.
6. Use technology, including the Internet, to produce and publish writing and to interact and 3, 5, 12, 13
collaborate with others. Icons throughout
Research to Build and Present Knowledge
7. Conduct short as well as more sustained research projects based on focused questions, 9, 13
demonstrating understanding of the subject under investigation.
8. Gather relevant information from multiple print and digital sources, assess the credibility and 6, 8, 9
accuracy of each source, and integrate the information while avoiding plagiarism. Icons throughout
9. Draw evidence from literary or informational texts to support analysis, reflection, and research. 8, 9
Range of Writing
10. Write routinely over extended time frames (time for research, reflection, and revision) and shorter 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 12, 13
time frames (a single sitting or a day or two) for a range of tasks, purposes, and audiences.
College and Career Readiness Anchor Standards for Speaking and Listening Chapters
Comprehension and Collaboration
1. Prepare for and participate effectively in a range of conversations and collaborations with diverse 4, 8
partners, building on others’ ideas and expressing their own clearly and persuasively. Icons throughout
2. Integrate and evaluate information presented in diverse media and formats, including visually, 9
quantitatively, and orally. Icons throughout
3. Evaluate a speaker’s point of view, reasoning, and use of evidence and rhetoric. 8, 9
Icons throughout
Presentation of Knowledge and Ideas
4. Present information, findings, and supporting evidence such that listeners can follow the line 6, 8, 9
of reasoning and the organization, development, and style are appropriate to task, purpose, and Icons throughout
audience.
5. Make strategic use of digital media and visual displays of data to express information and enhance 9
understanding of presentations. Icons throughout
6. Adapt speech to a variety of contexts and communicative tasks, demonstrating command of formal 5, 6
English when indicated or appropriate. Icons throughout
College and Career Readiness Anchor Standards for Language Chapters
Conventions of Standard English
1. Demonstrate command of the conventions of standard English grammar and usage when writing 5
or speaking.
2. Demonstrate command of the conventions of standard English capitalization, punctuation, and 5
spelling when writing.
Knowledge of Language
3. Apply knowledge of language to understand how language functions in different contexts, to make 4, 5, 8, 9
effective choices for meaning or style, and to comprehend more fully when reading or listening.
Vocabulary Acquisition and Use
4. Determine or clarify the meaning of unknown and multiple-meaning words and phrases by using 5, 7
context clues, analyzing meaningful word parts, and consulting general and specialized reference
materials, as appropriate.
5. Demonstrate understanding of word relationships and nuances in word meanings. 4, 5, 7, 8
6. Acquire and use accurately a range of general academic and domain-specific words and phrases 5, 7, 9
sufficient for reading, writing, speaking, and listening at the college and career readiness level;
demonstrate independence in gathering vocabulary knowledge when encountering an unknown
term important to comprehension or expression.
© Copyright 2010. National Governors Association Center for Best Practices and Council of Chief State School Officers. All rights reserved.
MORR9613_DES_IFC2_PMS159_CS5.indd 3 6/14/12 9:35 AM
Developing Literacy
Reading and Writing
To, With, and By Children
Timothy G. Morrison
Brigham Young University
Brad Wilcox
Brigham Young University
Boston Columbus Indianapolis New York San Francisco Upper Saddle River
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To Carol and Debi
Vice President, Editor in Chief: Aurora Martínez Ramos
Editor: Erin K.L. Grelak
Editorial Assistant: Michelle Hochberg
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Production Coordination, Editorial Services, and Text Design: Electronic Publishing Services Inc., NYC
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Cover Designer: Jenny Hart
Cover, Chapter Opener, and Creative Feature Illustrations: Steve Morrison
Photos: Gian Rosborough and Jill Shumway
Credits: The Common Core State Standards for the English Language Learners is © Copyright 2010.
National Governors Association Center for Best Practices and Council of Chief State School Officers. All
rights reserved.
All other credits are continued to page 363, which constitutes a continuation of the copyright page.
Copyright © 2013 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Manufactured in the United States of
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Morrison, Timothy (Timothy G.) author.
Developing literacy : reading and writing to, with, and by children / Timothy G. Morrison
& Brad Wilcox.
pages cm
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN-13: 978-0-13-501961-0
ISBN-10: 0-13-501961-3
1. Reading (Elementary) I. Wilcox, Brad, 1959- author. II. Title.
LB1573.M664 2013
372.4—dc23
2012015735
10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
ISBN 10: 0-13-501961-3
ISBN 13: 978-0-13-501961-0
About the Authors
Timothy G. Morrison and Brad Wilcox are associate professors in the Department of
Teacher Education at Brigham Young University, where they teach undergraduate and
graduate courses in reading, language arts, and children’s literature. They both earned
their BA and MEd degrees at Brigham Young University. Tim received his PhD at the
University of Illinois at Urbana–Champaign, and Brad earned his PhD at the University
of Wyoming. Prior to joining the faculty at BYU, Tim served as a faculty member at
Boise State University and California State University–Fresno.
Early in his career, Tim taught grades four, five, and six in Pocatello, Idaho and third
grade in Springville, Utah; Brad previously taught sixth grade in Provo, Utah. More re-
cently, they have both done extensive consulting throughout the United States, as well as
in Central America, Australia, and Europe. They both have directed BYU’s New Zealand
Study Abroad Program, living in Auckland, where they taught and supervised teacher
candidates in practicum settings.
Their research and professional writing focuses on literacy, teacher education, chil-
dren’s literature, and education in international settings. They have served as editors for
the professional publications of the Association of Literacy Educators and Researchers
and have published articles in many professional journals, including Literacy Research and
Instruction, Reading Psychology, The Journal of Adolescent and Adult Literacy, and The Reading
Teacher.
Tim and his wife, Carol, are the parents of three grown sons and have four grand-
children. Brad and his wife, Debi, have four children and three grandchildren.
v
Contents
Preface xiii
part one foundations of literacy 1
Chapter 1 Understanding Literacy Contexts 1
HisToRiCAL oveRvieW 2 LiTeRACy THeoRies 9
Colonial Period 2 Bottom-Up 9
Early American History 3 Top-Down 10
Early 1900s 4 Interactive 10
Late 1900s 6 sUmmARy 11
2000s 7 seLf-CHeCk 12
myeducationLabTm 12
Chapter 2 Understanding the needs of All Learners 13
CULTURe 15 PoveRTy 23
LAngUAge minoRiTies 20 URBAn AnD RURAL eDUCATion 24
Second Language Acquisition 20 Urban 24
Pre-production 20 • Early Rural 25
Production 20 • Speech LeARning DisABiLiTies 26
Emergence 20 • Intermediate sUmmARy 28
Fluency 21 • Advanced Fluency 21 seLf-CHeCk 29
School Assistance 21
myeducationLabTm 29
Special Services 21 • Instructional Support 22
Chapter 3 Teaching for Learning 30
imPACT of TeACHeRs 32 Fluency 42 • Presentation 42
Learning and Teaching 32 Linking Reading and Writing 43
Key Behaviors of Effective Teaching 33 LeARneRs’ PRoCesses 43
Variety 34 • Clarity 34 • Task Reading Process 44
Orientation 34 • Engagement 35 • Success Prereading 44 • Reading 45
Rate 35 Responding 45 • Exploring 45 • Applying 46
ComPonenTs of LiTeRACy 36 Writing Process 46
Elements of Reading 36 Prewriting 47 • Drafting 47 • Seeking a
Phonological Awareness 36 • Phonics 37 Response 49 • Revising 49 • Editing 50
Vocabulary 37 • Fluency 38 Publishing 51
Comprehension 38 Linking Reading and Writing 51
Traits of Writing 39 insTRUCTion 52
Voice 40 • Organization 41 • Ideas 41 Approaches 53
Conventions 42 • Word Choice 42 • Sentence
vi
contents vii
Core Literacy Programs 53 • Reading and Writing Perceived Requirements 60
Workshops 54 • Literature Units 54 Perceived Expectations 60
Self-Regulated Strategy Development 55 • Genre Sincere Desires 61
Writing 56 Progressing Through Levels 61
Essential Elements 57
sUmmARy 62
Time to Learn 57 • Time to Do 58 • Time to
seLf-CHeCk 62
Share 59
myeducationLabTm 63
moTivATion AnD LiTeRACy 60
part two components of literacy 64
Chapter 4 emergent Literacy 64
oRAL LAngUAge DeveLoPmenT 65 AWAReness of soUnDs AnD LeTTeRs 70
Phonology 65 Recognition of Language Sounds 71
Semantics 66 Phonemic Awareness 71 • Phonological
Syntax 66 Awareness 71 • Word Play 72
Pragmatics 67 Written Language Development 73
Schema Theory 67 Developmental Stages 75 • Developmental
Journal Writing 75
Insufficient Text Clues 68 • Limited
Schema 68 • Mismatched Schema 69 Combining Spoken and Written Language 78
LiTeRACy DeveLoPmenT 69 Picture Books 78 • Language Experience
Approach (LEA) 79
Emergent 69
sUmmARy 82
Beginning 69
seLf-CHeCk 82
Fluent 70
myeducationLabTm 82
Chapter 5 Beginning Reading and Writing 83
WoRD iDenTifiCATion 84 Concepts about Print 99
Phonics 84 Spelling 101
Useful Generalizations 86 • Instruction 88 Handwriting 102
Word Families 90 Grammar 103
Instruction 91 • Word Games 92 Interactive Writing 104
Sight Words 94 sUmmARy 107
High Frequency Words 95 • Instruction 95 seLf-CHeCk 107
Putting It All Together 96 myeducationLabTm 107
ConvenTions of WRiTTen
LAngUAge 99
Chapter 6 fluency 108
ComPonenTs of fLUenCy 109 Readers’ Theater 113 • Puppet
skiLLs AnD sTRATegies 110 Shows 113
Rate and Accuracy 110 oRAL ReADing 116
Repeated Reading 110 • Neurological Group Reading 116
Impress 112 • Echo Reading 112 Assessment 117
Expression 112 Transition to Silent Reading 117
viii contents
WRiTTen LAngUAge 118 Class Book 121 • Classroom Post Office 124
Sentence Fluency 118 sUmmARy 124
Timed Writing 119 • Conferencing for seLf-CHeCk 125
Content 119 myeducationLabTm 125
Voice 120
Chapter 7 vocabulary 126
voCABULARy AnD ReADing 127 voCABULARy AnD WRiTing 141
Size 128 Word Choice 142
Word Collections 129 Precise Language 142 • Powerful
Guiding Principles 131 Language 144
Experience 131 • Environment 131 Poetry 146
Exposure 132 • Engagement 132 sUmmARy 148
Types of Words 133 seLf-CHeCk 148
Instruction 136 myeducationLabTm 148
Key Word Prediction 136 • Five-Step
Approach 137 • Semantic Mapping 140
Chapter 8 Creating meaning 149
foUnDATionAL meAning-mAking CReATing meAning THRoUgH
ABiLiTies 150 WRiTing 177
CReATing meAning THRoUgH Ideas 177
ReADing 151 Life Maps 178 • Shared Stories 178 • Writers’
Reading Comprehension Strategies 151 Notebooks 179
Organizational Strategies 152 • Identifying Main Organization 180
Ideas 153 • Inferential Strategies 160 • Audience 180 • Forms of Writing 182
Metacognitive Strategies 173 sUmmARy 185
Multiple Strategies 175 seLf-CHeCk 186
myeducationLabTm 186
Chapter 9 integrating Literacy with Content Areas 187
ReADing in ConTenT AReAs 188 WRiTing in ConTenT AReAs 203
Expository Text Structure 188 Writing without Revision 203
Description 189 • Sequence 190 Learning Logs 204 • Think-Write-Share 205 •
Comparison 190 • Cause and Effect 190 Note Taking/Note Making 206
Problem and Solution 190 Writing with Revision 206
Expository Text Features 190 Shared Writing 207 • Small Groups 208
Print Features 190 • Organizational Aids 191 Expository Text 209
Graphic Aids 192 Reports 210 • Alphabet Books 212
Study Strategies 192 Argumentative Writing 214
SQ3R 193 • Mnemonic Devices 194 Persuasive Papers 214 • Advertisements 217
sUmmARy 217
KWL 195
seLf-CHeCk 218
Study Guides 197
myeducationLabTm 218
Graphic Organizers 197 • Anticipation Guides 198
Internet Inquiries 200 • Games 201
contents ix
part three literacy assessment and
instruction 219
Chapter 10 Assessing for Learning 219
TyPes of AssessmenT 220 Student-Text Matching 231
Summative 220 Readability Formulas 231 • Cloze Procedure 232
Norm-Referenced 221 • Criterion-Referenced 221 Range of Text Complexity 234
Formative 222 WRiTing AssessmenT 235
Response to Intervention (RtI) 223 • Assessment Large-Scale 235
for Learning 224 Classroom 236
Performance-Based 225 Ongoing Assistance 236 • Judging Student
Performances 226 • Portfolios 226 Writing 237
Projects 227 infoRming insTRUCTion 239
ReADing AssessmenT 227 sUmmARy 240
Individual Methods 228 seLf-CHeCk 241
Running Records 228 • Informal Reading myeducationLabTm 241
Inventories 230
Chapter 11 Reading and Writing to Children 242
ReADing To CHiLDRen 244 Personal Notes 254 • Morning
Importance of Reading Aloud 245 Messages 254 • Instructions 255 • Classroom
Motivation 245 • Vocabulary 246 • Language Labels 256 • Dialogue Journals 257
and Print Concepts 246 • Attention Span 247 Models 258
Read Aloud Techniques 248 Author Visits 258 • Teacher
Expression 248 • Illustrations 249 Modeling 258 • Author’s Craft 259
Questions 249 sUmmARy 260
Book Selection 250 seLf-CHeCk 260
Narrative 252 • Informational 252 • Poetic 252 myeducationLabTm 260
WRiTing To CHiLDRen 253
Methods 253
Chapter 12 Reading and Writing with Children—Whole Class 261
ReADing WiTH CHiLDRen—WHoLe Shared Writing within Various Instructional
CLAss 262 Approaches 277
Shared Reading within Various Instructional Core Literacy Programs 277 • Writing
Approaches 262 Workshop 277 • Self-Regulated Strategy
Core Literacy Programs 263 • Reading Development 277 • Genre Writing 278
Workshop 263 • Literature Units 264 Writing Process 278
Reading Process 265 Before Writing 279 • Advance Planning 279
Before Reading 266 • During Reading 268 • During Writing 282 • After Writing 285
After Reading 271 sUmmARy 289
WRiTing WiTH CHiLDRen—WHoLe seLf-CHeCk 289
CLAss 276 myeducationLabTm 289
