Table Of Contenti
Detection of Optical Signals
ii
Series in Optics and Optoelectronics
Detection of Optical Signals
Antoni Rogalski, Zbigniew Bielecki
Handbook of Optoelectronics, Second Edition
Applied Optical Electronics (Volume Three)
John P. Dakin, Robert G. W. Brown
Handbook of Optoelectronic Device Modeling and Simulation
Lasers, Modulators, Photodetectors, Solar Cells, and Numerical Methods, Vol. 2
Joachim Piprek
Handbook of Optoelectronics, Second Edition
Concepts, Devices, and Techniques (Volume One)
John P. Dakin, Robert Brown
Handbook of GaN Semiconductor Materials and Devices
Wengang (Wayne) Bi, Haochung (Henry) Kuo, Peicheng Ku, Bo Shen
Handbook of Optoelectronic Device Modeling and Simulation (Two-Volume Set)
Joachim Piprek
Handbook of Optoelectronics, Second Edition (Three-Volume Set)
John P. Dakin, Robert G. W. Brown
Optical MEMS, Nanophotonics, and Their Applications
Guangya Zhou, Chengkuo Lee
Thin-Film Optical Filters, Fifth Edition
H. Angus Macleod
Laser Spectroscopy and Laser Imaging
An Introduction
Helmut H. Telle, Ángel González Ureña
Fourier Optics in Image Processing
Neil Collings
Holography
Principles and Applications
Raymond K. Kostuk
An Introduction to Quantum Optics, Second Edition
Photon and Biphoton Physics
Yanhua Shih
Polarized Light and the Mueller Matrix Approach, Second Edition
José J. Gil, Razvigor Ossikovski
For more information about this series, please visit:
https://www.crcpress.com/Series-in-Optics-and-Optoelectronics/book-series/TFOPTICSOPT
iii
Detection of Optical Signals
Antoni Rogalski
Zbigniew Bielecki
iv
First edition published 2022
by CRC Press
6000 Broken Sound Parkway NW, Suite 300, Boca Raton, FL 33487- 2742
and by CRC Press
2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon, OX14 4RN
CRC Press is an imprint of Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
© 2022 Antoni Rogalski & Zbigniew Bielecki
Reasonable efforts have been made to publish reliable data and information, but the author and publisher cannot assume
responsibility for the validity of all materials or the consequences of their use. The authors and publishers have attempted to
trace the copyright holders of all material reproduced in this publication and apologize to copyright holders if permission to
publish in this form has not been obtained. If any copyright material has not been acknowledged please write and let us know
so we may rectify in any future reprint.
Except as permitted under U.S. Copyright Law, no part of this book may be reprinted, reproduced, transmitted, or utilized
in any form by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying,
microfilming, and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without written permission from the publishers.
For permission to photocopy or use material electronically from this work, access www.copyright.com or contact the
Copyright Clearance Center, Inc. (CCC), 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA 01923, 978- 750- 8400. For works that are not
available on CCC please contact [email protected]
Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks and are used only for identification
and explanation without intent to infringe.
Library of Congress Cataloging- in- Publication Data
Names: Rogalski, Antoni, author. | Bielecki, Zbigniew, author.
Title: Detection of optical signals / Antoni Rogalski and Zbigniew Bielecki.
Description: First edition. |
Boca Raton: CRC Press, [2022] |
Series: Series in optics and optoelectronics | Includes bibliographical references and index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2021045715 | ISBN 9781032059488 (hbk) |
ISBN 9781032069227 (pbk) | ISBN 9781003263098 (ebk)
Subjects: LCSH: Image converters. | Optical detectors. | Charge coupled devices.
Classification: LCC TK8316 .R64 2022 |
DDC 621.36/7–dc23/eng/20211110
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2021045715
ISBN: 978- 1- 032- 05948- 8 (hbk)
ISBN: 978- 1- 032- 06922- 7 (pbk)
ISBN: 978- 1- 003- 26309- 8 (ebk)
DOI: 10.1201/9781003263098
Typeset in Times
by Newgen Publishing UK
Access the Support Material: www.routledge.com/ 9781032059488
v
Contents
Preface ...............................................................................................................................................xi
Acknowledgements .........................................................................................................................xiii
Author Bios .....................................................................................................................................xiv
Chapter 1 Radiometry and Photometry .........................................................................................1
1.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................2
1.2 Radiometric and Photometric Quantities and Units ...........................................3
1.3 Radiometric Quantities ......................................................................................6
1.4 Luminance ..........................................................................................................9
1.5 Blackbody Radiation ........................................................................................13
1.5.1 Planck’s Law ......................................................................................14
1.5.2 Wien’s Displacement Law ..................................................................15
1.5.3 Stefan- Boltzmann’s Law ....................................................................16
1.5.4 Exitance Contrast ...............................................................................17
1.6 Emissivity.........................................................................................................18
1.7 Propagation of Optical Radiation .....................................................................21
1.7.1 Propagation of Optical Radiation through the Atmosphere ...............21
1.7.2 Transmission Range of Optical Materials ..........................................24
Problems .....................................................................................................................26
References ..................................................................................................................27
Chapter 2 Characteristics of Optical Detectors ...........................................................................29
2.1 Introduction ......................................................................................................29
2.2 Detector Parameters .........................................................................................31
2.2.1 Quantum Efficiency ............................................................................31
2.2.2 Responsivity .......................................................................................32
2.2.3 Noise Equivalent Power .....................................................................32
2.2.4 Detectivity ..........................................................................................33
2.2.5 Response Speed ..................................................................................34
2.3 Detector Performance Limited by Photon Noise .............................................35
2.4 Measurements of Detector Parameters ............................................................41
2.4.1 Responsivity Measurements ...............................................................42
2.4.1.1 Measurement of the Spectral Responsivity of
the Detector .......................................................................42
2.4.1.2 Measurement of the Detector Responsivity to
Blackbody Radiation ........................................................44
2.4.2 Noise Measurements ..........................................................................46
2.4.3 Measurement of Frequency Characteristics .......................................49
2.4.4 Measurement of the Rise and Fall Time of the Detector Response ...52
Problems .....................................................................................................................52
References ..................................................................................................................54
Chapter 3 Noise Sources .............................................................................................................55
3.1 Introduction ......................................................................................................56
v
vi
vi Contents
3.2 Photon Noise ....................................................................................................59
3.2.1 Signal Flux Fluctuation Noise ............................................................60
3.2.2 Background Flux Fluctuation Noise ..................................................62
3.3 Johnson Noise ..................................................................................................62
3.4 Shot Noise ........................................................................................................65
3.5 Generation- recombination Noise .....................................................................66
3.6 1/ f Noise ...........................................................................................................68
3.7 Temperature Noise ...........................................................................................69
3.8 Microphonic Noise ...........................................................................................70
3.9 Popcorn Noise ..................................................................................................71
Problems .....................................................................................................................71
References ..................................................................................................................73
Chapter 4 Fundamentals of Optical Detection ............................................................................75
4.1 Introduction ......................................................................................................75
4.2 Classification of Detectors ...............................................................................77
4.3 Physical Basics of Thermal Detectors Operation ............................................82
4.3.1 Detectivity and Fundamental Limits ..................................................86
4.3.2 Thermopiles ........................................................................................89
4.3.3 Bolometers .........................................................................................91
4.3.4 Pyroelectric Detectors ........................................................................93
4.4 Physical Principles of Photon Detectors ..........................................................96
4.4.1 Radiation Absorption ..........................................................................97
4.4.2 Coupling of Radiation with Detectors ..............................................100
4.4.3 Generation and Recombination Mechanisms ...................................105
4.5 Photoconductive Detectors ............................................................................110
4.6 Photovoltaic Detectors ...................................................................................114
4.6.1 P- n Junction Photodiodes .................................................................114
4.6.2 Real Photodiodes ..............................................................................118
4.6.2.1 Generation- recombination Current .................................119
4.6.2.2 Tunnelling Current ..........................................................121
4.6.2.3 Surface Leakage Current ................................................121
4.6.3 Response Time .................................................................................123
4.7 P- i- n Photodiodes ...........................................................................................125
4.8 Avalanche Photodiodes ..................................................................................128
4.9 Schottky Barrier Photodiodes ........................................................................135
4.10 Metal- semiconductor- metal Photodiodes ......................................................137
4.11 Barrier Photodetectors ...................................................................................138
4.12 Photoemissive Detectors ................................................................................142
4.12.1 Internal Photoemission Process ........................................................144
4.12.2 Silicide Photoemissive Detectors .....................................................147
Problems ...................................................................................................................150
References ................................................................................................................153
Chapter 5 Thermal Detectors ....................................................................................................157
5.1 Introduction ....................................................................................................157
5.2 Thermopiles ...................................................................................................158
5.2.1 Thermoelectric Materials .................................................................159
5.2.2 Technology and Properties of Thermocouples .................................163
vii
Contents vii
5.3 Bolometers .....................................................................................................167
5.3.1 Metal Bolometers .............................................................................168
5.3.2 Thermistors .......................................................................................169
5.3.3 Semiconductor Bolometers ..............................................................170
5.3.4 Microbolometers ..............................................................................173
5.3.5 Superconducting Bolometers ...........................................................177
5.3.6 High- temperature Superconducting Bolometers ..............................179
5.4 Pyroelectric Detectors ....................................................................................181
5.4.1 Responsivity .....................................................................................182
5.4.2 Noise and Detectivity .......................................................................184
5.4.3 Pyroelectric Material Selection ........................................................186
5.4.4 Dielectric Bolometers .......................................................................190
5.4.5 Pyroelectric Linear Arrays and Multi- colour Detectors ...................193
Problems ...................................................................................................................196
References ................................................................................................................198
Chapter 6 Photoemissive Detectors ..........................................................................................201
6.1 Introduction ....................................................................................................201
6.2 Conventional Photocathodes ..........................................................................202
6.3 Negative Electron Affinity Devices ................................................................205
6.4 Photomultipliers .............................................................................................207
6.5 Microchannel Plates .......................................................................................213
6.6 Image Intensifier Systems ..............................................................................215
6.7 Schottky Barrier Photoemissive Detectors .....................................................217
Problems ...................................................................................................................221
References ................................................................................................................222
Chapter 7 Photon Detectors ......................................................................................................225
7.1 Introduction ....................................................................................................225
7.2 X- ray and γ- ray Detectors ..............................................................................228
7.3 Ultraviolet Detectors ......................................................................................237
7.4 Visible Detectors ............................................................................................242
7.5 Infrared Photodetectors ..................................................................................246
7.5.1 Germanium Photodiodes ..................................................................247
7.5.2 InGaAs Photodiodes .........................................................................248
7.5.3 InSb- based Photodiodes ...................................................................251
7.5.4 HgCdTe Photodetectors ....................................................................254
7.5.5 Lead Salt Photoconductors ...............................................................265
7.5.6 Extrinsic Photoconductors ................................................................265
Problems ...................................................................................................................270
References ................................................................................................................271
Chapter 8 Quantum Well, Superlattice and Quantum Dot Photodetectors ...............................277
8.1 Low Dimensional Solids: Background ..........................................................277
8.2 Types of Superlattices ....................................................................................281
8.3 Superlattice Avalanche Photodiodes ..............................................................282
8.4 GaAs/ AlGaAs Quantum Well Infrared Photodetectors .................................284
8.5 Type- II Superlattice Photodetectors ...............................................................287
8.5.1 6.1 Å III- V Semiconductor Family ..................................................289
viii
viii Contents
8.5.2 p- i- n Photodiodes .............................................................................293
8.5.3 Barrier Photodetectors ......................................................................295
8.6 Quantum Dot Photodetectors .........................................................................300
8.6.1 Self- assembled Quantum Dots .........................................................300
8.6.2 Colloidal Quantum Dots ...................................................................305
8.7 Quantum Cascade Photodetectors ..................................................................309
Problems ...................................................................................................................313
References ................................................................................................................315
Chapter 9 2D Material Photodetectors ......................................................................................319
9.1 Relevant Properties of Graphene and Related 2D Materials .........................319
9.1.1 Graphene ..........................................................................................320
9.1.2 2D Crystalline Materials ..................................................................323
9.2 2D Material- based Detectors .........................................................................328
9.3 2D Material- based Detector Performance .....................................................331
9.3.1 Photon Detectors ..............................................................................331
9.3.2 Thermal Detectors ............................................................................336
References ................................................................................................................338
Chapter 10 Terahertz Detectors ...................................................................................................341
10.1 Room Temperature THz Detectors ................................................................342
10.1.1 Schottky Barrier Diodes ...................................................................345
10.1.2 Field Effect Transistor and CMOS- based Detectors ........................346
10.1.3 Microbolometers ..............................................................................348
10.2 Extrinsic Semiconductor Detectors ................................................................350
10.3 Semiconductor Bolometers ............................................................................351
10.4 Pair Braking Photon Detectors .......................................................................353
10.5 Superconducting HEB and TES Detectors ....................................................354
10.6 Far- infrared Instruments for Astronomy ........................................................357
References ................................................................................................................360
Chapter 11 Direct and Advanced Detection Systems .................................................................363
11.1 Selection of Active Amplification Elements ..................................................363
11.2 Voltage Preamplifiers .....................................................................................370
11.3 Transimpedance Preamplifiers .......................................................................372
11.4 Charge Preamplifiers ......................................................................................375
11.5 First Stages of Photoreceivers ........................................................................377
11.5.1 Photoreceivers with Photon Detectors ..............................................377
11.5.2 Photoreceivers with Thermal Detectors ...........................................388
11.6 Noise Models of First Stages of Optical Detection Systems .........................393
11.7 Maximisation of Signal to Noise Ratio in Photoreceivers .............................400
11.8 Monolithic and Hybrid Photoreceivers ..........................................................407
11.9 Photon Counters .............................................................................................408
11.10 Advanced Methods of Signal Detection ........................................................413
11.10.1 Signal Averaging ..............................................................................413
11.10.2 Phase Sensitive Detection .................................................................414
11.10.3 Boxcar Detection Systems................................................................420
ix
Contents ix
11.10.4 Coherent Detection ...........................................................................428
Problems ...................................................................................................................432
References ................................................................................................................434
Chapter 12 Focal Plane Arrays ....................................................................................................437
12.1 Introduction ....................................................................................................437
12.2 Small Arrays ...................................................................................................440
12.3 Arrays of Detectors with Signal Processing in the Focal Plane .....................443
12.3.1 Monolithic Arrays ............................................................................443
12.3.2 Hybrid Arrays ...................................................................................446
12.4 Basic Parameters of Detector Arrays .............................................................449
12.4.1 Noise Equivalent Charge ..................................................................450
12.4.2 Noise Equivalent Difference Temperature .......................................451
12.4.3 Modulation Transfer Function ..........................................................452
12.4.4 Minimum Resolvable Temperature Difference ................................454
12.4.5 Other Parameters ..............................................................................456
12.4.5.1 Fill Factor (FF)................................................................456
12.4.5.2 Dynamic Range (DR) .....................................................457
12.4.5.3 Crosstalk .........................................................................458
12.5 CCD Image Sensors .......................................................................................458
12.5.1 CCD Array Operation .......................................................................460
12.5.2 Types of CCD Devices .....................................................................462
12.5.3 Signal Readout Techniques Used in CCDs ......................................466
12.5.3.1 Floating Diffusion Circuit ...............................................467
12.5.3.2 Correlated Double Sampling Circuit ..............................468
12.5.3.3 Floating Gate Circuit ......................................................468
12.5.4 Read- out Circuits Architecture .........................................................468
12.5.4.1 Full-frame CCD ..............................................................470
12.5.4.2 Frame- transfer CCD .......................................................470
12.5.4.3 Interline Transfer CCD ...................................................472
12.5.4.4 Frame- interline Transfer CCD ........................................472
12.5.4.5 Image Sensor Formats ....................................................473
12.6 CMOS Devices ..............................................................................................474
12.6.1 Types of Pixels .................................................................................476
12.6.2 Architecture of CMOS Imaging Sensors..........................................479
12.6.3 Signal Readout Circuits in CMOS Sensors ......................................480
12.6.3.1 SI Circuits .......................................................................481
12.6.3.2 SFD Circuits ...................................................................482
12.6.3.3 Capacitor Feedback Transimpedance Amplifier .............483
12.6.3.4 Injection Circuits ............................................................484
12.6.3.5 MOSFET Gate Modulation Circuits ...............................485
12.6.4 Readout Circuit Architecture for CMOS Sensors ............................487
12.6.5 CMOS versus CCD ..........................................................................488
12.7 Representative Focal Plane Arrays .................................................................491
12.7.1 Butting versus Stitching Techniques ................................................491
12.7.2 Detector Operating Temperature ......................................................493
12.7.3 Ultraviolet and Visible Arrays ..........................................................496
12.7.4 Microbolometer Arrays ....................................................................500
