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ForElana
Desire in the Iliad: The Force That Moves the Epic and Its Audience
Rachel H. Lesser
Published: 2022 Online ISBN: 9780191957390 Print ISBN: 9780192866516
FRONT MATTER
Acknowledgments
Published: October 2022
Subject: Classical Poetry
Many people have helped to make this book possible and I am profoundly grateful to all of them. My
undergraduate teachers, Helene Foley and Oliver Taplin, �rst inspired and shaped my appreciation for the
Iliad. Mark Gri�th, my dissertation supervisor at the University of California, Berkeley, shepherded this
project from its inception and then provided crucial feedback and support as I developed it into a book. The
other members of my dissertation committee, Leslie Kurke, Richard Martin, Andrew Stewart, and James
Turner, also nurtured this project in its initial stages, and Andrew Stewart has continued to be an invaluable
mentor. I am likewise indebted to Seth Schein for his mentorship, and this book has bene�ted from his
careful commentary on several chapters. Ruby Blondell, Joanne Myers, and my mother, Priscilla Hunt, also
provided important feedback on individual chapters, while the Provost’s O�ce at Gettysburg College
�nancially supported my research, and the anonymous readers for Oxford University Press guided me to
improve this book in countless ways.
For their encouragement and advice, I am thankful to my Women’s Classical Caucus mentor Lillian Doherty
and my Gettysburg College colleagues Christopher D’Addario, Nathalie Lebon, Benjamin Luley, Joanne
Myers, GailAnn Rickert, and Kerry Wallach. I have also relied on the wisdom and moral support of many
other friends, including Lidia Anchisi, Alice Broadway, Andy Celestia, Jessica Chen, Rachel Denison,
Christen Lambert, Richard Lambert, Serena Le, Virginia Lewis, Antony Millner, Christopher Oechler,
Jacqueline Oechler, Sarah Olsen, Douglas Page, Lauren Steyn, Victoria Suchodolski, Mercedes Valmisa,
Carolyn Walker, Naomi Weiss, and Janelle Wertzberger. My fellow members of the Berkeley Greek Reading
Group buoyed me throughout this project, and among them Rodney Merrill and the late Gary Holland and
Thomas Walsh particularly enriched my understanding of Homer.
Finally, I have cherished and relied on the support of my family throughout this project. For their sustaining
love, humor, and counsel, I give thanks to all my uncles and aunts, and in particular my late aunt Jennifer
Hunt, to my cousins Nancy Fudem and Jonathan Fudem, to my in-laws Avis Freedman, Nick Evanson, and
Skye Nashelsky, to my cousin and dear friend Christine Hunt, to my brother Daniel Lesser and sister-in-law
Rebecca Herst, and especially to my beloved parents Victor Lesser and Priscilla Hunt, who have taught me so
much and always been there for me. My utmost gratitude goes to my wife Elana Nashelsky, who nourished
p. viii me and cheered me on every step of the way, and our son Isaac Nashelsky, who brightens my days.
Introduction
Iliasipsaquidestaliud,nisiadultera,dequa
interamatorempugnavirumquefuit?
quidpriusestillicflammaBriseidos,utque
feceritiratosraptapuelladuces?
WhatelseistheIliaditself,ifnotanadulteress,overwhom
awareruptedbetweenloverandhusband?
WhatinitispriortoflamingpassionforBriseis,andhow
thestolengirlmadetheleadersenraged?¹
Ovid,Tristia2.371–74
“Narrativesbothtellofdesire—typicallypresentsomestoryofdesire—
andarouseandmakeuseofdesireasadynamicofsignification.”
PeterBrooks,ReadingforthePlot:Designand
IntentioninNarrative(1984),p.37
WhatiftheIliadwerenotonlyastoryofwrathand“thepoemofforce”²butalso
an epic of desire? Ovid made that proposition roughly two thousand years ago
when,indefenseofhisownamorousliteraryworks,heinvokedtheIliadaserotic
poetry, together with numerous other Greek and Latin classics, including the
Odyssey.Alongsimilarlines,theliterarycriticPeterBrookshasassertedthatall,or
nearly all, fictional narratives—starting with the Iliad—are driven by desire, in
some form or another, and aim to provoke too the desires of their listeners or
readers.
Indeed,asOvidrecognized,attherootofboththequarrelandthewarthattend
to define our view of the Iliad are triangles of desire—passionate competition
betweenAchilleusandAgamemnonoverBriseis,andbetweenMenelaosandParis
over Helen—which Homer explores in depth, especially in Books 1and 3of the
epic. Moreover, within and beyond these and other triangles, the poet describes
andthematizesthroughoutthepoemthemultiformdesiresofhischaracterswith
an extensive, flexible, and ubiquitous vocabulary of fervent urges, longings, and
wishes.Thesevariousdesiresarenotonlyromanticandsexualbutalsomournful
andaggressive,andmuchmore.Thisbookexaminescomprehensivelyforthefirst
¹ LatintextofOvidisfromtherevisedLoebedition.Alltranslationsaremyown.
² Weil1956[1939].
DesireintheIliad:TheForceThatMovestheEpicandItsAudience.RachelH.Lesser,OxfordUniversityPress.
©RachelH.Lesser2022.DOI:10.1093/oso/9780192866516.003.0001
2
time how desire, broadly conceived, manifests itself in the Iliad, and how it
motivatestheepic’splot.
InthisbookIamalsoconcernedwiththeaudience’sorreader’scorresponding
desiretoengagewiththeIliad.Brooks’contentionthatnarrativesaredesignedto
stimulate desire is supported, in the case of the Iliad, by the Odyssey’s portrayal
of Iliadic poetry’s powerful allure through Odysseus’ encounter with the Sirens
(Od.12.166–200).IntheircalltoOdysseustoheedtheirsong,theSirenspresent
themselvesasIliadicMuses,who“knowallthethingswhichtheArgivesandthe
TrojanssufferedinwideTroybythegods’will”;locatedinaneroticizedflowery
meadow,theydescribetheirvoiceas“honeyed”(μελίγηρυν),figuringtheirsongas
asweettemptationthatarousestheappetite.Indeed,Odysseusrecountshow“my
heartwishedtolisten”(ἐμὸνκῆρ/ἤθελ’ἀκουέμεναι),causinghimtobeghissailors
to unloose the bonds keeping him from the Sirens.³ I theorize the nature of the
desire for epic that overwhelms Odysseus and other Iliadic audiences, and show
howthatexternaldesireisaroused,shaped,andsatisfiedbytheIliad’splotandits
internalmotivatingdesires.
In its investigation of Iliadic desire in relation to epic plot and audience
reception, this book brings together two previously distinct areas of inquiry.
Sincethe1990s,influencedbytheburgeoningfieldofgenderandsexualitystudies,
scholars have begun to explore desire in the Iliad, but in reference to specific
characters, incidents, or kinds of desire, rather than as a major, integrated force
organizingtheepicasawhole.⁴Meanwhile,therehasbeenarenewalofinterestin
the Iliad’s narrative structure, with multiple important studies that consider the
poem’s narrative in a detailed and sustained way, involving fresh narratological
perspectives, attention to significant formal patterns and repetitions, and appre-
ciation for Homer’s complex artistry and his text’s relation to an intended
audience.⁵ I build on and combine these two spheres of scholarship, offering
newinsightintothemotivation,form,andappealoftheIliadinitsentirety.My
approachtothepoemisalsoinformedbystudiesofdesireinancientandmodern
³ OntheIliadicnatureoftheSirensandtheirsong,seefurtherPucci1998[1979]:1–4andPeponi
2012:76–80.Peponi2012:70–94andLiebert2017:40–43explorehowtheSirensandtheirsongare
presentedaseroticobjectsandparticularlyobjectsofOdysseus’desire.LaterintheOdyssey,thepoetis
evenmoreexplicitaboutaudiences’desireforsong,thoughthistimeitisnotparticularlyIliadic;after
thesuitors’slaughter,thepalacebard“rousedayearningforsweetsingingandblamelessdancing”
(ἵμερονὦρσε/μολπῆςτεγλυκερῆςκαὶἀμύμονοςὀρχηθμοῖο,23.144–45).Onthisandotherpassagesin
archaicGreekpoetrywheresongiseroticized,seeLiebert2017:48–62.Throughoutthisbook,Greek
textoftheOdysseyandIliadistakenfromMonroandAllen’sOxfordClassicalTexts,andEnglish
translationsarebasedontheseeditions.
⁴ Pavlock 1990, Luca 2001, Pironti 2007, Fantuzzi 2012, Blondell 2013, Holmberg 2014, Austin
2021.Holmberg2014:322hasobservedthatscholarlyinterestinhomosexualityhasleftthe“predom-
inantheterosexuality”oftheIliad“under-theorized.”
⁵ DeJong1987a,Lynn-George1988,Richardson1990,Morrison1992,Taplin1992,Lowenstam
1993,Stanley1993,Rabel1997,Scodel2002,Wilson2002,Grethlein2006,Heiden2008.
3
literature more broadly, psychoanalytic theories of desire, loss, and mourning,
queertheory,andcognitiveapproachestoliterature.
ThisbookclarifieshowtheIliadisfundamentallyanepicabouthumanfeelings
andhumanrelationshipsratherthanspectacularviolence.Thepoem’scapacious
languageofdesireandinterpersonaltrianglesdemonstrateanacutesensitivityto
thediverse wants, impulses,andattachmentsthatdrivepeople—andtheirsocial
origins and consequences. With this study, I hope to put to rest evolutionary
notions of literary history that view Homeric epic as primitive and unrealistic,
lacking interior depth and a recognizable concept of intellect.⁶ On the contrary,
though the Iliad represents human thoughts and emotions differently than the
nineteenth-centurynovel,forexample,andespousesatheoryofmindthatdeparts
fromourown,⁷Ijointhosewhofinditsportrayalofhumanpsychologyrealistic,
profound,andilluminating.
Therein, I argue, lies the epic’s primary attraction. Homer’s depiction of the
characters’desiresandtheplottheymotivatearekeyfactorsthatdrawaudiences
andreaderstotheIliad,elicitingtheirowndesires.Thisbookshowshowapoem
ofsuchextraordinarylengthandcomplexityhasforeonskeptdiverseaudiences
enthralledallthewaytoitsendandbeyond.
The Characters’ Triangular Desires
Oneofmycentralargumentsinthisbookisthattrianglesofdesirearebasicand
pervasivestructureswithintheIliad’snarrative.Indeed,thetriangleofdesiremay
be understood as another traditional epic theme or pattern that reflects early
Greekunderstandingsofhumanpsychologicalandsocialorganization.⁸Scholars
havelongrecognizedthisstructureinitsinitialinstantiationasa“patternofbride-
stealingandrescue”or“dualthemeoftheseizure/returnofawoman.”⁹First,the
priestChrysesattemptstoransomhiscaptureddaughterChryseisfromtheGreek
leaderAgamemnon,whohasclaimedherashisconcubine;then,adisputearises
between Achilleus and Agamemnon over sexual possession of the enslaved
woman Briseis; finally, we witness a duel between Menelaos and Paris over who
willhaveHelenashiswife.Ineachofthesecases,amanhastakenawayawoman
from another man, to whom she “rightfully” belongs, causing the two men to
competeforcontroloverher.
⁶ Thus,Auerbach2003[1953]andSnell1953.
⁷ Onthemulti-partandexternalizedHomericmind,seeespeciallyDodds1951:1–27andSnell
1953:1–22.ForrecentsupportofaHomerictheoryofmind,seeRusso2012andScodel2012.
⁸ Thus, the triangle of desire is also a fundamental structure of the Odyssey, appearing most
obviously in Odysseus’ competition with the suitors for sexual possession of Penelope and in
Demodokos’songaboutHephaistos’paralleldisputewithAresoverAphrodite(Od.8.266–366).
⁹ Lord2000[1960]:190andStanley1993:39.
4
Thesearenot,however,theIliad’sonlysimilarnarrativetriangles.Ishowhow
thequarrelbetweenthedivinecoupleHeraandZeusoverthefateoftheGreeks
and Trojans, as well as Helen’s dispute with Aphrodite over Paris, mirror the
contests between mortal men over women. Likewise, Achilleus’ deadly conflict
with Hektor over the killing of his beloved companion Patroklos parallels and
replaces his previous clash with Agamemnon over Briseis. A final narrative
triangle is constituted in Priam’s supplication of Achilleus for the ransom of
Hektor’sbody.Thoughsomeoftheselattertrianglesdonotexhibittheexplicitly
sexualelementthatispresentinthe“patternofbride-stealingandrescue,”Iargue
thatalloftheepic’striangularconflictsandconfrontationsarerootedindesireof
various kinds, and I examine how these dynamics of desire operate in each
triangle,ofteninrepeatedways.
Theepic’ssimplestformofdesireoccursintwoofthesetriangles,butisnotin
itself truly triangular: direct,unmediated sexual passion for another person.The
Greek terms erōs (“lust”) and himeros (“yearning”) and their cognates most
obviously denote this desire. Sexual erōs is inspired by visual perception of the
desiredperson,¹⁰andrequiresthedesiringsubjectanddesiredobjecttobeinclose
proximity. It is presented as an outside force that “veils” (ἀμφεκάλυψεν) or
“dominates” (ἐδάμασσεν) the desiring subject’s mind or heart (3.442 ~ 14.294;
14.316).Similarly,sexualhimeros“seizes”(αἱρεῖ)thesubject(3.446=14.328)and
itisassociatedwiththeexternalpowerofAphroditeandhermagicalembroidered
strap, the kestos himas (14.198, 14.216).¹¹ Indeed, the coercive presence of the
goddess Aphrodite can also imply this kind of overwhelming desire, as can the
verb lilaiomai (“to desire”) and the noun thumos (“passion” or “heart”). This
desire demands and usually achieves instant gratification and keeps the subject
focusednearlyexclusivelyonthedesiredobjectuntilitissatisfied.Itmotivatesnot
only Paris but also Helen, as I argue, to join in adulterous union, and distracts
ZeusfromhiswilltomaketheTrojanstemporarilytriumphantonthebattlefield.
AsecondkindofdesirethatIdistinguishintheIliad’strianglesislongingfora
belovedpersonwhohasbeenabductedorkilled.Unlikesexualpassion,thisdesire
is provoked by the malign intervention of a third person or group of people
responsible for removing or eliminating the object of desire. Whereas erōs and
himerosarearousedthroughimmediatesensoryormentalstimulationandareof
relativelyshortduration,thisdesireispredicateduponlossandabsence,sustained
through memory of the beloved, and does not necessarily come with the
¹⁰ Plato,inhistreatmentoferōs,assertsrepeatedlythatitflowsinthroughthedesirer’seyes(Cra.
420b1;Phdr.250d4–252b3,253e6–254c3,255b3–256a7).
¹¹ Weiss1998:50–53etymologizesbothhimerosandhimasfromanIndo-Europeanrootmeaning
“tobind,”andsuggeststhathimerosoriginallyindicateda“magicalbinding.”Theexternalityofhimeros
(initsappearanceasanurgetolament)isindicatedbyitsabilitytoindependentlyleavethesubject’s
heartandlimbs(καίοἱἀπὸπραπίδωνἦλθ’ἵμεροςἠδ’ἀπὸγυίων,24.514).Onsexualerōsandhimerosin
earlyGreekepic,seefurtherLexikondesfrühgriechischenEpos(LfgrE)s.v.andMüller1980:11–21.
5
expectation of attaining the desired object. It is sometimes explicitly denoted by
the Greek word pothē (“longing”) and its cognates,¹² but it is also implied by its
accompanyingemotionofgrief(achos,penthos)aswellasbygrief’smanifestation
intears and, inthecase ofthe desired object’sdeath, lamentation.¹³ Thus,Ialso
associatethemoreurgentandsatisfiableimpulsetolament,expressedasahimeros
orerōsforlamentation(goos),withthemostintensevarietyofthislongingfora
lost beloved.¹⁴ Achilleus experiences both pothē and mournful himeros when
Patroklosiskilled,and,asIargue, hefeelsalessextremeformofthissametype
ofdesirewhenhelosesBriseis,asdoesChryseswhenheisfirstunabletoransom
Chryseis, and Agamemnon when he is ultimately forced to give her up. The
Trojan royal family too experiences this longing and its attendant desire for
lamentationaftertheirlossofHektortoAchilleus.
ThethirdandmostcomplexsortofdesirethatIidentifyinthesetrianglesisthe
aggressivedesirethatarticulatestherelationshipbetweenthesubjectwhohaslost
a beloved object and the rival responsible for that loss. The subject wishes to
dominateordestroytherival,andtherivaloftenreciprocatesthisdesire.Onthe
onehand,theHomericverbsofwishingandwanting(ethelō,boulomai,eeldomai)
and their cognate nouns (boulē, eeldōr) can express the general will to best and
undotheother.Ontheotherhand,awidearrayoftermsdesignateacuteurgesto
do violence against one’s antagonist: the noun menos (“force, drive, rage”) and
cognateverbsmeneainō,menoinaō,andmemona(“todesireeagerly,torage”),the
lastusuallyastheparticiplememaōs(“eager”);¹⁵erōsanditscognateeramaiwhen
their object is war or fighting; and other verbs of desire that appear regularly in
the epic’s battle narrative (lilaiomai, hiemai). Like sexual passion, this kind of
aggressive drive is not entirely controlled by the subject; for example, another
personcanrouseasubject’smenos,agodcaninspiremenosor“stop”(παύσουσα,
1.207)it,andmenoscanalsoindependentlyseizeone,althoughadesiringsubject
too is thought to be capable of stopping his own menos (1.282). Aggressive
¹² IntheIliad,pothēisusedtodesignatelongingforaparticularmanortheattributesofaman(not
awoman),exceptfortheonecasewhereitdescribesAchilleus’desireforbattle-cryandwarwhenhe
haswithdrawnfromthefighting(1.492).Itappearsmostcommonlyinmalehomosocialcontextsto
designateanarmy’sorhero’slongingforanabsentleader(1.240,2.703,2.709,2.726,2.778,6.362,
11.471,14.368,15.219)orcomrade(7.690,17.704,19.321,23.16,24.6).Thriceitisusedanalogouslyof
horses’longingfortheirabsentcharioteers(5.234,11.61,17.439[inthislastcaseitappearsuniquelyin
thevariantformpothos]).Onceitpredictsawife’slongingforherhusbandifheshoulddieinbattle
(5.414). Weiss 1998: 33–34 explains that pothē/pothos derives from a verb meaning “to pray” and
originallymeant“theactofpraying,”whichimplies“adesireforthatwhichisnoteasilyobtainedbythe
subject’sactionsalone,”thatis,“desireforthatwhichisnotathand.”Onthemeaningofpothēinthe
Iliad,seefurtherLfgrEs.v.and,especially,Austin2021:17–49.
¹³ Gorgias describes pothos, a variant of pothē, as “intimate with grief” (φιλοπενθής) in his
EncomiumofHelen(ch.9).
¹⁴ Cf. Plato, Cra. 420a4–8, where Sokrates argues that pothos and himeros describe the same
experience,exceptthattheobjectofpothosisabsentwhiletheobjectofhimerosispresent.Seealso
Vernant1989:140–41.
¹⁵ Snell1953:21definesmenosas“theforceinthelimbsofamanwhoisburningtotackleaproject.”
SeealsoDodds1951:8–10andLfgrEs.v.
