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Foreword
For more than 40 years we have been traveling to the south of Israel, inspired by David Ben
Gurion’svisionofmakingthedesertbloomandthecommitmentofBenGurionUniversityofthe
Negevtofulfilthisdream.ZeevWiesman’sdecadelongresearch,synthesizedinDesertOlive
OilCultivation,representsthebestofBGUandofIsrael.Zeev’spioneeringworkbenefitsnot
onlyfarmersintheNegev,butalsoprovidesknowledgeandtoolstoassistthe100sofmillions
of people around the world who live in a semi-arid climate zone to be more economically
productiveandtolivehealthierandmorehopefullives.
In the interest of full disclosure we should mention that we are benefiting personally from
Zeev’swork.Havinglearnedaboutdesertoliveoilandtheadvantagesofgrowingorganically
in a desert environment we are now importing into the US a superior tasting organic olive oil
grownfromorchardsintheNegev.
MarvinIsraelowandDorianGoldman
xiii
Preface
The present annual economic value of worldwide olive oil production is estimated to exceed
D10billion.Theoliveoilindustryistraditionallyconcentratedinthesemi-aridMediterranean
region,wherehigh-valueoliveoilisextractedfromolivefruitbycrushinginanoilmill.Increas-
ingawarenessofthenutritionalbenefitsandsuperiorflavorofhigh-qualityoliveoilhasledtoa
rapidlyincreasinginternationaldemandforthisoil.Thus,inrecentdecadesasignificantwaveof
establishmentofnewoliveplantationshastakenplaceworld-wide,includingAustralia,South
and North America, South Africa, and Southeast Asia. For a variety of economic, environ-
mental, and sociological reasons, this new trend of olive cultivation is mainly concentrated in
desert-marginalenvironments.
Themajorproblemspreventinganincreaseinoliveoilsupplyarethedependenceoftheindustry
ontraditionalproductionmethodsandinefficientoliveoilqualitycontrollingbio-technologies.
Aiming to contribute to the current need for technological modernization of the international
olive oil industry with emphasis on the available and economically feasible desert environ-
ments,wedecidedtosummarizeinthepresentbookourresearchanddevelopmentexperience
in the successful Negev Desert olive oil initiative during the past 25 years. We tried to close
the gaps of desert-specific cultivation know-how with high-quality and cost-effective olive oil
agro-production technologies. We also intensively surveyed the reported literature and intro-
duceinthisbookmanyadditionalrelevantaspectstocovermostoftheavailableinformation.
Allofthiswasdonetoaidtheunderstandingofinterestedreadersregardingtheintensivecul-
tivationneedsofolivetrees,thedesertenvironment’savailableresources(e.g.,water,soil,and
climate),andtheirefficientutilizationforsuccessfuloliveproduction.Wealsodiscussadvanced
novel bio-technologies specifically developed for Negev Desert high olive oil quality extrac-
tionandotherhighadded-valueproduct-processingtechniquesincludingsolidandliquidwaste
material recycling. In particular, these technologies were directed to characterize the Negev
effectonmetabolomicfingerprintingofamajoroliveoilcomponent(triglycerides)andminor
components(e.g.,polyphenol,tocopherols,andphytosterols).Thefactthatmanycommonand
newvarietiesofolivescultivatedwithsalinewaterirrigationinNegevDesertconditionsmeet
theinternationaloliveoilqualitystandardsispresented.Furthermore,insomecasesthedesert
stress-limitingconditionswerefoundtoincreasetheoliveoilquality,sothattheseenvironmental
disadvantages may be converted to unique nutritional branding advantages. Novel prediction
models regarding olive varieties’ oil potential and their optimal date of harvesting are also
presented.
xv
xvi Preface
Social aspects as well as basic economics and marketing of conventional and organic olive
oilproducedintheNegevDesertenvironmentaredemonstratedintwospecifictestcases.Itis
suggestedthatalltheseaspectscoveredmaybeadoptedwithsomespecificneededmodifications
formanyotherdesertenvironmentsonallcontinents.
The mission of completing this book could not have been carried out without the great help,
support, and dedication of Dr. Bishnu Chapagain, who was deeply involved in recent years in
the R&D efforts in the olive oil metabolomic field and later also in putting together all the
collected data. Well-deserved acknowledgments are offered to all the staff of the Phyto-Lipid
BiotechnologyLab(PLBL)withspecialthankstoShirleyandShaharNizri,andcollaborating
BGU units (e.g., Industrial Engineering and Management Department, Analytical Equipment
Unit,theZuckerbergInstituteforWaterResearch,andtheofficesoftheRectorandthePresident
ofBen-GurionUniversityoftheNegev).
ThisNegevDesertinitiativewasalsosupportedbyalonglistofexternalgroupsandcompanies
including: Prof. G. Bianchi’s Oil Technology group at Pescara, Italy, Technical Section of
IOC, Spain, Peres Center for Peace, Israeli Ministries of Science, Commerce and Industry,
Environment Protection, and Health, Re’em Farm, Nahal Boker Farm, Halperin Farm, Neot
Smadar,BeitNir,Yavenegroup,HaderDarawshOliveOilMills,ZabargaOliveOilMill,Talil
Nursery, and many small olive oil and by-products producers. Last but not least, this Negev
Desert olive oil R&D mission could not have been finalized without the financial and great
moralsupportoftheDavidDibnerFund,Israelow-GoldmanFundandAABGU.
“EnvironmentallyIntelligentBalancedBio-TechnologiescanProduceDesertGoldenOliveOil
fortheBenefitofallMankindinthe21stCentury.”
Part 1
Introduction to Desert Olive Oil
CHAPTER 1
The current status of and major trends in
the world olive oil industry
1.1 Thecurrentstatusoftheoliveoilindustry 3
1.1.1 Worldoliveoilproduction 4
1.1.2 Oliveoilconsumption 5
1.1.3 Oliveoiltrade 8
1.2 Market-differentiatingtrendsintheoliveoilindustry 11
1.2.1 Premiumoliveoilquality 11
1.2.2 Oliveoil,healthtrendsandtheMediterraneandiet 13
1.2.3 Oliveoilasapreventivemedicine 14
1.2.4 Organicoliveoilproduction 19
1.2.5 Varietalsandgeographicaltrends 19
1.2.6 Processing-relatedtrends 20
1.2.7 Large-scaleexpansionintodesertenvironments 20
1.1 The current status of the olive oil industry
Oliveoilisproducedsolelyfromthefruitoftheolivetree(OleaeuropaeaL)anddiffersfrom
mostoftheothervegetableoilsinthemethodofextraction,allowingittobeconsumedincrude
form,henceconservingitsvitaminsandothernaturalhealthyhigh-valuecompounds.Oliveoil
is the most widespread dietary fat in the ancient Mediterranean world. Olive culture has been
closelyconnectedwiththeriseandfallofMediterraneanempiresandotheradvancedciviliza-
tionsthroughouttheages.Traditionally,theoliveoilindustryhasplayedasignificanteconomic
roleonlyintheMediterraneanbasincountries,includingSpain,Portugal,Italy,Greece,Turkey,
Tunisia, Morocco and Syria. However, in recent decades olive cultivation has become more
important in other countries, such as Australia, New Zealand, the United States, countries in
South America, South Africa and India. Another traditionally important area is the large, dry
region of Central Asia, but its comparative remoteness and isolation from Western civiliza-
tion means that only meager information in regard to the olive oil cultivation in this huge and
historicallyimportantareaisavailabletoday.
◦ ◦
Mostolive-growingareasliebetweenthelatitudes30 and45 northandsouthoftheequator
(Figure1.1),althoughinAustraliasomeoftherecentlyestablishedcommercialoliveorchards
3
4 Chapter1
Figure1.1:Geographicaldistributionofareassuitableforolivecultivation.
◦
are nearer to the equator than to the 30 latitude and are producing a good yield; this may be
becauseoftheiraltitudeorforothergeographicreasons.
1.1.1 Worldoliveoilproduction
AccordingtothereportoftheInternationalOliveOilCouncil(IOOC),Mediterraneancountries
account for around 97 percent of the world’s olive cultivation, estimated at about 10,000,000
hectares.Therearemorethan800millionolivetreescurrentlygrownthroughouttheworld,of
which greater than 90 percent are grown for oil production and the rest for table olives. It is
estimatedthatmorethan2,500,000tonsofoliveoilareproducedannuallythroughouttheworld.
Since the mid-1990s, Spain has consistently been the largest producer; in the year 2004/05 it
produced826,300tonsofoliveoil(Table1.1).
Thepatternofproductionofoliveoilduringtheseyearsshowsbigfluctuationsfromoneyearto
thenext;however,Spain,ItalyandGreeceremainthethreelargestoliveoilproducingcountries,
dominating the world annual olive oil production. This signifies a high level of uncertainty
regardingproductionlevels.Intheyear2004/05,Spain,ItalyandGreeceproduced32,28and
13.5percentoftheworld’soliveoil,respectively(Table1.2).However,therecentexpansionof
theoliveoilindustryandsignificantcontributiontotheglobaloliveoilmarketbyseveralother
countries,suchasAustraliaandtheUnitedStates,mayleadtostabilizationofthemarketinthe
nearfuture.
Thecurrentstatusofandmajortrendsintheworldoliveoilindustry 5
Table1.1: Oliveoilproductionbycountry(1000tons;bi-yearlyaverage;1990/91to2004/05on
alternateyearbasis)
Country Year
90/91 92/93 94/95 96/97 98/99 00/01 02/03 04/05
Spain 616.2 586.1 431.5 1037.1 748.5 1187.3 1142.3 826.3
Italy 474.7 500.0 558.4 521.1 592.4 540.5 587.7 732.9
Greece 296.5 330.5 329.8 390.6 397.5 355.3 437.4 346.9
Tunisia 215.0 165.0 65.0 200.0 202.5 72.5 176.0 134.8
Syria 62.5 81.6 92.4 101.8 112.5 130.4 157.3 170.0
Turkey 70.0 53.0 102.5 120.0 117.5 125.0 120.0 122.5
Morocco 65.0 39.0 40.0 65.0 62.5 37.5 64.4 85.8
OthersMediterranean 37.9 59.2 44.0 98.4 85.2 86.5 78.4 85.6
OthersEurope 51.5 35.6 49.9 49.5 51.2 41.3 47.5 56.2
Restoftheworld 19.0 12.5 11.7 11.6 11.8 10.6 14.4 15.9
Source:FAOSTAT(www.fao.org).
Table1.2: Mainoliveoilproducingcountriesintheworldin2004/05
Country Oilproduction(%)
Spain 32.1
Italy 28.4
Greece 13.5
Tunisia 5.2
Syria 6.6
Turkey 4.8
Morocco 3.3
Source:FAOSTAT(www.fao.org).
Thechangesinlevelsofproductionofoliveoiloverthepastdecadehaveshownaheterogeneous
pattern.Ifwecomparethe1990–93and2002–05four-yearaverages,amongthetraditionalolive
oil producing countries the greatest production increases were found in Syria (+127 percent),
Turkey(+97percent)andSpain(+64percent).AmongtheMediterraneancountries,thelargest
productionincreasewasinIsrael(+1900percent)overthesameperiodoftime.Cyprus,Croatia,
France,JordanandSloveniaalsoincreasedtheiroliveoilproduction,whileChile,theUSAand
Australiaproducedasignificantlyhighincrementaswell(Table1.3).
1.1.2 Oliveoilconsumption
Oliveoilhasalonghistoryofmedicinal,magical,andevenfiduciaryuses.Medicalproperties
of olive oil were reported by many ancient Greek writers and philosophers, with the Greek
6 Chapter1
Table 1.3: Production of olive oil (1000 tons) and percent changes by country (4-year averages;
1990–93to2002–05)
Country 1990–1993 2002–2003 %Change
Spain 601.1 984.28 63.7
Italy 487.3 660.3 35.5
Greece 313.5 392.2 25.1
Syria 72.0 163.7 127.2
Morocco 52.0 75.1 44.1
Turkey 61.5 121.3 97.2
Tunisia 190.0 155.4 −18.2
OtherMediterranean
Jordan 9.6 20.3 111.7
Palestinianterritories – 15.9 –
Lebanon 5.1 6.0 17.7
Israel 0.23 4.53 1900.0
Algeria 25.9 26.7 3.1
Libya 7.8 8.5 8.8
OtherEuropean
Portugal 34.7 39.2 13.1
Cyprus 1.6 3.2 96.7
France 2.0 3.8 87.7
Macedonia – 2.13 –
Croatia 1.0 2.0 100.0
Albania 2.6 1.1 −57.1
Slovenia 0.04 0.23 411.2
Serbia&Montenegro 0.11 0.13 22.4
Restoftheworld
Argentina 11.7 11.0 −6.0
Chile 1.04 1.42 36.7
USA 0.61 0.88 44.0
Iran 1.3 0.79 −39
ElSalvador 0.52 0.53 1.4
Mexico 0.4 0.2 −50
Australia 0.07 0.16 143.9
Azerbaijan – 0.1 –
Afghanistan 0.08 0.08 0.0
Source:FAOSTAT(www.fao.org).
